CHAPTER 2- RESEARCH METHODS

Experiments

In an experiment, one or two variables are manipulated to see a cause and effect relationship

experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment and receives the variable that’s being tested (one version of the independent variable)

Control Group

the group not exposed to the treatment/ doesn’t receive the test variable. This group is used as a comparison for the experimental group to see the effects of the test.

variable

things that can be changed, altered, or measured

independent variable

the factor that is manipulated and whos’ effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other then the independent variable that ended up altering the results or the dependent variable

dependent variable

the variable that might change when the independent variable is manipulate. The that outcome that is measured

scatter plot

a graph of a cluster of dots that reveals the relationship between 2 variables.

Correlation Studies

Looking at the relationships between one or two variables.

Correlation

correlation suggests that there is a relationship between 2 variable

Illusory Correlation

when one perceives a association/correlation even when it isn’t there. This also includes seeing a stronger relationship when there is very little correlation.

Positive Correlation

occurs when both variables increase together or decrease together; as one variable increases, so does the other.

Negative Correlation

a relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

correlation coefficient

a number between -1 and +1 that represents the strength of the correlation between 2 variables. If it’s closer to either -1 or +1 then it has a strong correlation. If it’s 0 then there is no correlation.

Survey Research

Gathering information based off of questioning people and noting their responses. This involves a questionnaire of a random sample

Case Studies

In-depth study of an individual or group over long. Usually done on people with rare circumstances.

Natural Observation

The observing of subjects or participants without intervening and influencing the results

Longitudinal Studies

The study of the same individuals over a long period of time to note the change over time

Cross-Sectional Studies

Studying different groups at the same time. For example, examining multiple age groups to see which differences can be because of age

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe that one would have foreseen it. This is the I knew it all along phenomenon

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample which results in skewed data

population

all the people that are being studied from which a sample can be drawn from

Theory

an explanation using a set of principles that organizes and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

a testable prediction

operation definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures

replication

repeating a research study using different people and events to see if the same results can be reproduced

regression toward the mean

the tendency for an extreme or unlikely score to fall back towards the mean (average) when tested a second time

random assignment

randomly assigning participants to an experimental or control group thus giving everyone an equal chance. This helps eliminate bias and make sure the results are due to the variable being tested, not differences between groups.

double-blind procedures

an experimental procedure in which both research participants and staff are unaware of who received the treatment or who received the placebo (placebo is the fake pill, not the actual drug). This is used in drug evaluation studies

placebo effect

a psychological phenomenon in which a patients symptoms or conditions get better because they believe that it will work and they’ve received the true treatment even though they actually got the placebo.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is supposed to

informed consent

giving enough information to potential participants which allows them to decide whether they want to participate

debriefing

the explanation after an experiment that reveals the purpose and deceptions to the participants

descriptive statistics

a numerical data used to measure and describe the characteristics of groups. It consists of 3 categories; measures of central tendency, variability, and frequency distribution

histogram

bar graph that shows the frequency distribution

mode

most frequent score in a distribution

mean

average of a distribution

median

middle score of a distribution

range

difference between the highest and lowest score. (a measure of variation)

skewed distribution

a distribution in which most of the scores fall to one side of the distribution and lacks symmetry around the average

standard deviation

the average distance of the score from the mean. A dataset with low standard deviation had values that are close to the mean. Dataset with a high standard deviation has values that are more spread out.

normal curve

a symmetrical bell shaped curve where most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer scores near the extreme. (most scores fall between 15 standard deviation (68%)). 99% of scores fall between 3 standard deviations of the mean

Z score

numerical measurement that describes how many standard deviation a score is away from the mean.

inferential statistics

data that allows you to generalize and infer the probability of something being true about a population

statistical significance

how likely is it that the results occurred by chance. If something is statistically significant, that means that the results were not due to chance. If it isn’t statically significant, it occurred by chance.

P value (probability value)

if the p value was .05 or less, then the results are statistical significant which means it was not due to chance. (0-1)

Null hypothesis

states that there is no relationship between the two variables being studies and the results were due to chance and not statistically significant

Response Rate

response rates refer to the proportion of people who respond out of the total number asked or surveyed.

Hawthorne Effect

the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed.

Generalizing Results

applying findings from a sample group in an experiment or study to larger populations outside the study.

Association

any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another. It's often used in learning theories such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Adderall

prescription medication containing two drugs, amphetamine and dextroamphetamine. It is used for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.

Realism

orientation towards facts and reality, accepting them without distortion by personal feelings or prejudices.

Applied Research

research that seeks to solve practical problems and plays an important role in solving everyday issues

Basic Research

scientific study aimed at expanding knowledge and understanding fundamental concepts. It's not necessarily intended for immediate, practical application.

control variables

factors that researchers keep constant to ensure that they do not interfere with the results of an experiment.

Experimental Bias

the possibility that a researcher's expectations might skew the results of an experiment.

Overconfidence

tendency of an individual to overestimate their abilities and knowledge, leading them to make decisions without considering potential risks or negative outcomes.

Scientific Method

systematic procedure that researchers use to conduct experiments. It involves observing, forming questions, making predictions, doing experiments, and developing theories.

Correlational research mothod

involve measuring two variables and analyzing how they relate to each other - whether they move together (positive correlation), move in opposite directions (negative correlation), or have no relationship (zero correlation).

descriptive research method

involves observing and describing behavior without manipulating variables. It often involves naturalistic observations, surveys, and case studies.

external validity

how well the results of a study can be generalized or applied to other situations and people.

internal validity

how well an experiment is done, especially whether it avoids confounding (more than one possible independent variable [cause] acting at the same time).

bimodal distribution

occurs when two different values appear most frequently (modes) in the data set. This results in two peaks

Frequency distribution

how often something happens within certain ranges or intervals for a set of data points.

Measures of central tendency

Measures of central tendency are statistical indicators that identify the center, or average, of a data set. These measures include mean, median, and mode.

Measure of variation

describe how spread out or scattered the values in a data set are. They include range, variance, and standard deviation among others.

American Psychological Association

APA is a scientific and professional organization that represents psychology in the United States. It's responsible for setting ethical guidelines for psychological research.

Anonymity

refers to the practice of ensuring that all information collected from a participant in a study is not linked to their identity, thus protecting their privacy.

Coercion

involves forcing someone into doing something against their will, often through threats or manipulation. In psychological research, it's unethical to coerce someone into participating in a study.

Deception

refers to the act of misleading or lying to participants about the true purpose or nature of a study.

ethical guidelines

rules set by professional organizations that govern the conduct of its members and provide a framework for ethical decision making.

Institutional Review Board

an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited for participation in activities such as biomedical and behavioral research.