1. European Diplomacy and Changing Balance of Power

The Changing Balance of Power in Europe Post-1871

Europe underwent a dramatic shift in power dynamics after the unification of Germany in 1871. This era was characterized by:

• Emergence of Germany: The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership transformed the European power structure. Germany rapidly industrialised and became a leading economic and military power.

• Decline of Traditional Powers: Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire faced internal and external challenges, leading to a gradual decline in their influence.

• Britain's Naval Dominance: Despite the shifting power dynamics on the continent, Britain maintained its global supremacy through its powerful navy and extensive empire.

Imperial Expansion in Africa and Asia

European powers vigorously expanded their empires, particularly in Africa and Asia, driven by:

• Economic Motivations: The quest for raw materials, new markets for manufactured goods, and investment opportunities.

• Strategic Considerations: Colonies served as bases for military and naval power, extending European influence globally.

• Cultural and Ideological Factors: The belief in the cultural superiority of European civilisation and the missionary zeal to spread Western values and Christianity.

Key Developments

• Scramble for Africa: A rapid division and colonisation of African territory by European powers, often without regard to existing ethnic or political boundaries.

• Imperialism in Asia: Establishment of colonies and protectorates in India, Southeast Asia, and significant influence in China, exemplified by the Opium Wars and the “Open Door Policy.”

Impact on European Diplomacy

Imperial ambitions led to increased tensions among European nations:

• Colonial Rivalries: Disputes over territorial claims and spheres of influence often brought European powers to the brink of conflict.

• Alliances and Treaties: Diplomatic efforts to balance power included complex treaties, often secret, aiming to protect imperial interests.

The Congress of Berlin (1878)

The Congress of Berlin was convened to address the issues arising from the Russo-Turkish War and the decline of the Ottoman Empire:

• The Eastern Question: Focused on the fate of the Balkan territories under Ottoman rule and the containment of Russian expansion.

• Territorial Redrawings: Redefining borders in the Balkans, leading to the creation, expansion, or recognition of several states.

• Interests of Major Powers: Aimed to balance the competing interests of European powers, particularly Russia, Britain, Austria-Hungary, and Germany.

Outcomes and Consequences

• Temporary Stability: The Congress managed to avert an immediate crisis but did not resolve underlying tensions.

• Rise of Nationalism: The decisions taken at the Congress fuelled nationalist sentiments in the Balkans and elsewhere.

The European Alliance System

The intricate web of alliances formed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was crucial in shaping European diplomacy:

• Dual Alliance (1879): A defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, primarily against Russia.

• Triple Alliance (1882): Expansion of the Dual Alliance to include Italy, counterbalancing France's power.

• Franco-Russian Alliance (1894): A mutual defence pact between France and Russia, partly in response to the Triple Alliance.

• Entente Cordiale (1904): An agreement between Britain and France settling colonial disputes, leading to closer diplomatic ties and eventually the Triple Entente with Russia.

Impact and Significance

• Polarisation of Europe: The continent was increasingly divided into two hostile camps, setting the stage for large-scale conflict.

• Militarisation and Planning: The alliances led to an arms race and extensive military planning based on potential coalition warfare.

• Diplomatic Flexibility and Tensions: While alliances provided security, they also created obligations that could drag countries into conflicts.