Week 10 (Motivation and Emotion)

Emotions

a feeling that we have toward an object or even

Emotions generally include temporary changes in:

• Hormones

• physiology

• thought

• feeling

• behaviour

• facial expression

• sense perception

Mood

are longer lasting states and are not affected by a specific object or event. can be less intense than emotions

Facial expressions

Each facial movement that we can detect is an action unit that describes how the eyebrows, mouth, cheeks, or eyes change with each expression

Universal facial expressions

anger/disgust, fear/surprise, happiness, and sadness

Universal emotions

happiness, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust as distinct and universal emotions

Cannon bard 

the physical stimulus in the environment is perceived and then simultaneously produces bodily or facial expression changes and acknowledgment of the emotion. 

Cannon- Bard physiological changes

The thalamus mediates these emotional reactions and reports back to the cortex

heart rate, skin conductance, facial expressions, gastrointestinal shifts, and endocrine changes.

Cannon bard example

seeing a snake and, at the exact same time, feeling fear and having a racing heart

James-Lange

1) We perceive a physical stimulus in the environment, 2) we experience an emotion or mental affection, and 3) then we express that emotion publicly through bodily gestures or moving our facial muscles.

James-Lange example

seeing a bear and, instead of feeling afraid, your body's physiological response—trembling, racing heart—is then interpreted as fear

the difference between the James-Lange and the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

is that events surrounding the expression of emotion occur sequentially within the James-Lange account, but the outward expression of emotion as well as the perception of that emotion occur at the same time according to the Cannon-Bard account

Schacter-Singer

emotions involve 2 factors

• physiological arousal

• cognitive interpretation of the physiological response

• A cognitive judgement or attribution is crucial to emotional experience

Schacter-Singer example

experiencing a racing heart and sweaty palms during an important exam

role of biological needs on motivation

• limited in range, but shared by all

• related to survival and reproduction

• e.g. oxygen motivated to keep breathing on and on

• if your hungry everything to get food or water

role of satiation on motivation

reduces motivation by decreasing the drive to obtain a stimulus that has been fulfilled

role of motivating operators on motivation

proposed that there are also motivating operations that act on the antecedent stimulus, behaviour, and consequence contingency two types establishing anf abolishing operations

Establishing operations

increase the effectiveness of reinforcers and evoke behaviour related to obtaining those reinforcers

Abolishing operations

have the opposite effect—they decrease the effectiveness of reinforcers and decrease behaviour related to obtaining those reinforcers.

role of occasion setters on motivation

acting as contextual cues that signal when a discriminative stimulus (DS) will lead to a reward, or when it will not 

Hunger is an occasion setter that refers to the pang or ache that we feel when we haven’t eaten in a long time.

Drive reduction theory 

we behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce drive

Drive reduction theory example

eating when hungry to reduce the physiological drive for food, drinking water when thirsty, and putting on a jacket when cold to alleviate the discomfort of a low body temperature

Expected value theory

• motivation is a function of

  • value people place on an outcome

  • likelihood that they can achieve it

Expected value theory example

a 50% chance of winning $100 resulting in an expected value of $50, or a lottery ticket costing $1 with a 1% chance of winning $50 having an expected value of -$0.49.

self determination theory

posits that all humans have three innate psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—which, when satisfied, promote intrinsic motivation, psychological well-being, and healthy development

self determination theory example

a person who starts a new exercise routine because they value the long-term health benefits and see it as part of their identity as a healthy person, rather than just doing it for external rewards or to avoid punishment

Hypothalamus effect on hunger

regulates hunger by acting as the control center for appetite and satiety, receiving signals from hormones like ghrelin (which stimulates hunger) and leptin (which suppresses hunger). It integrates these signals and communicates with other brain regions to influence eating behavior and maintain energy balance

Hypothalamus effect on hunger example

lesioning the lateral hypothalamus (LH) leads to a loss of appetite, while stimulating it triggers eating

Feedback mechanisms

a system that regulates itself by responding to information about its own output, using this "feedback" to make adjustments and maintain stability or drive change

Feedback mechanisms example

negative feedback loop that starts with the body's need for energy and ends with the sensation of fullness

Sexual orientation effect on sexual motivation

• enduring direction of attraction for a sexual partner on a continuum

• twin studies a biological basis for sexual orientation

Sexual orientation effect on sexual motivation example

heterosexual men tend to show arousal specific to their preferred gender, while women may show more bisexual or non-specific arousal patterns,

Culture and sexual motivation

• Anthropological studies show wide cultural variation in sexual norms and appropriate behaviour

• e.g. western makes men have greater sexual needs

Hormonal levels effect on sexual motivation

Hormonal levels significantly influence sexual motivation through complex interactions, with key hormones like testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone playing major roles

Hormonal levels effect on sexual motivation example

a woman's sexual desire peaks around ovulation due to high estradiol levels, while low testosterone levels in men are linked to low sexual desire

Pheromones effect on sextual motivation

• are a type of chemical signal to indicate the reproductive status of a potential partner

• Humans and rodents show differential olfactory (i.e., scent) sensitivity to pheromones during the phases of their menstrual cycle.

Pheremones effect on sextual motivation example

Female rats and humans still discriminate between individual males during this time, and women tend to prefer the scent of men with good genetic markers like symmetry between the left and right halves of the body and face

Intrinsic motivation

• the enjoyment of

• enters in a behaviour for its own sake

• love walk, exercise

extrinsic motivation

the drive to do something for external rewards or to avoid punishment, rather than for the sheer enjoyment of the activity itself

Distinguish between the psychosocial motives of agency and relatedness

Agency is the psychosocial motive focused on individual autonomy, self-direction, and the ability to act purposefully to achieve goals and exert control over one's environment. In contrast, relatedness is the motive for social connection and interpersonal acceptance, emphasizing belonging, closeness, and positive relationships with others.