Samples Surveys Observations

Population

A complete set of observations, events, or individuals with a common characteristic that the researcher is interested in studying.

Sample

A subset of the population used for research to avoid the difficulties of studying the entire population.

Random Sample

A type of sample where every person in the population has an equal probability of being selected.

Stratified Sample

A type of sample that uses established subsets of the population to ensure equal representation from each group.

Cluster Sample

A sampling method where entire intact groups are randomly selected and treated as individuals.

Accidental/Haphazard Sample

A non-scientific sampling method that may create a biased sample, often seen in 'mall questionnaires'.

Bias

A sample that is systematically different from the population from which it is drawn.

Selection Bias

A flaw in the sampling process resulting in over- or under-representation of segments of the population.

Response Bias

A distortion in the representativeness of a sample caused by some sampled individuals failing to respond.

Sampling Error

The difference between the population mean and the sample mean that can occur even in an unbiased sample.

Surveys

Non-experimental research methods that assess attitudes, opinions, characteristics, or perceptions.

Knowledge Base

The understanding a researcher must have about a topic to construct a valid survey.

Open-ended Questions

Questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words, such as short answer or essay questions.

Closed-ended Questions

Questions that provide a list of choices or alternatives for respondents to select from.

Partially Open-ended Questions

Questions that combine closed-ended formats with an option for respondents to write in answers.

Double-barreled Questions

Questions that ask two things simultaneously and can confuse respondents.

Negative Wording

Using negative phrasing in questions that can lead to confusion and misinterpretation.

Leading Questions

Questions phrased in a way that suggests a particular answer and may bias responses.

Pilot Study

A pretest of a survey instrument where data do not count, allowing for refinement of questions.

Anti-Bias Statement

A statement included in evaluations to remind participants of potential biases in feedback.

Observations

The unobtrusive recording and description of behavior in a natural setting.

Naturalistic Observations

Watching subjects in their natural environments without interference.

Structured Observations

Observations conducted in a controlled environment, which may not fully replicate natural settings.

Interobserver Reliability

The extent of agreement among observers about what occurred during observations.

Operational Definitions

Exact explanations of the measurements or variables used in research to ensure clarity and consistency.

Hypotheses

Predictions made prior to the study that researchers aim to test or explore.

Focus Groups

A collection of individuals brought together to discuss and provide feedback on a particular topic.

Survey Construction

The process of developing survey questions and formats to gather data effectively.

Question Formats

Different ways of structuring questions in surveys, including open, closed, and partially open-ended.

Response Options

The alternatives provided to respondents in a closed-ended question to choose from.

Field Notes

Detailed records by researchers during naturalistic observations, describing daily events as they occur.