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What are the 6 Standard Questions of Forensic Anthropology?

1. Is it bone? 2. Is it human? 3. Is it of forensic significance? 4. Who is it? (Bio Profile) 5. Time Since Death? 6. Trauma (Manner of Death)?

Is it Human or Animal? (Microscopy)

Human osteons are round and random/scattered. Animal osteons are rectangular (plexiform) and banded/rowed.

Forensic Significance Definition

Remains are considered significant if they require legal investigation, typically deaths within the last 50 years that are not part of an archaeological site.

Biological Profile Components

Age, Sex, Stature, Ancestry.

Does the Biological Profile provide a positive ID?

No. It only provides a "short list" to narrow down missing persons.

Positive Identification Requirements

DNA, antemortem/postmortem X-ray comparison (e.g., frontal sinus), or dental records.

Cause of Death vs. Manner of Death

Forensic Anthropologists determine MANNER (Homicide, Suicide, Accidental, Undetermined). The Medical Examiner/Coroner determines CAUSE (e.g., blood loss).

Taphonomy

The study of what happens to remains after death (scavenging, weathering, transport, decomposition).

Decomposition Variables

Decomposition rates are highly variable based on climate. Data from the Tennessee "Body Farm" does NOT apply to Manitoba.

Bioarchaeology Definition

The scientific study of human remains from archaeological sites to understand past health, diet, and adaptation.

Biocultural Model

A framework studying the interaction between biology (e.g., disease, nutrition) and culture (e.g., settlement, technology).

Peopling of the Americas: Arrival Date

Most reliable evidence suggests humans arrived between 20,000 and 15,000 Years Ago (YA).

Coastal Migration Hypothesis ("Kelp Highway")

The most widely accepted theory: Humans traveled south along the Pacific Coast by boat.

Ice-Free Corridor Hypothesis

Theory that humans walked between ice sheets. Flaw: The corridor likely wasn't open/habitable until after 14,000 YA.

Solutrean Hypothesis

Controversial/Rejected theory that humans crossed the Atlantic from Europe. Lacks sufficient evidence.

Kennewick Man ("The Ancient One")

A 9,000-year-old skeleton found in Washington (1996). DNA confirmed he was First Nations (Native American), disproving early claims he was Caucasian.

Domestication of Dogs

Occurred approx 20,000–15,000 YA.

Transition to Food Production (Date)

Generally 15,000–10,000 YA.

Criteria for Civilization (Archaeological)

1. Agricultural base 2. State political organization 3. Monumental architecture 4. Cities (>5000 people) 5. Writing system.

First Civilization

Sumerian (Mesopotamia).

Writing Emergence

Just over 5,000 YA in Mesopotamia (Cuneiform). Originally for accounting/trade.

Invention of the Wheel

~5,500 YA in Mesopotamia. Originally used for POTTERY, not transport.

Pottery Origins

Earliest pottery is from China (~20,000 YA). Found in Americas ~7,500 YA.

Subsistence: Foragers

highly mobile, small groups (bands), egalitarian, gather wild resources.

Subsistence: Pastoralists

Herding animals, semi-sedentary (transhumance), tribes.

Subsistence: Horticulturalists

Small-scale farming (slash & burn), semi-sedentary, simple tools.

Subsistence: Agriculturalists

Intensive farming (plows/irrigation), permanent cities, State societies, surplus.

Cooking Hypothesis

The theory that controlling fire/cooking increased energy from food, allowing for larger brains and smaller guts.

Oldowan Tools

2.6 MYA. Associated with H. habilis. Unifacial choppers.

Acheulean Tools

1.7 MYA. Associated with H. erectus. Bifacial Hand Axes.

Lomekwian Tools

3.3 MYA. Predates Homo. Likely made by Australopithecus or Kenyanthropus.

Levallois Technique

Prepared-core method used in Middle Paleolithic (Neanderthals/Heidelbergensis) to control flake shape.

Upper Paleolithic Explosion

~40,000 YA. Rapid appearance of art, blades, jewelry, and ritual (Europe).

Atlatl

Spear-thrower invented ~30,000 YA. Increases force and distance.

Venus Figurines

Upper Paleolithic statues of women, interpreted as fertility symbols or art.

Hominin Definition

Humans and our bipedal ancestors (after the split from chimps).

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

7-6 MYA. Oldest potential hominin. Foramen magnum suggests bipedalism.

Ardipithecus ramidus ("Ardi")

4.4 MYA. Bipedal on ground, quadrupedal in trees (divergent big toe).

Australopithecus afarensis ("Lucy")

3.9–3.0 MYA. Fully bipedal, small brain. Associated with Laetoli footprints.

Laetoli Footprints

3.7 MYA (Tanzania). Preserved in volcanic ash. Proved bipedalism evolved before large brains.

Paranthropus

"Robust" Australopithecines. Huge jaws, sagittal crest, large molars. Evolutionary dead end.

Homo habilis

"Handy Man". 2.5–1.4 MYA. First undisputed tool maker (Oldowan). Found ONLY in Africa.

Homo erectus

"Upright Man". 1.8 MYA. First to leave Africa. First to control fire. First to hunt big game.

Homo heidelbergensis

700k–200k YA. "Archaic H. sapiens". First to build shelters. Ancestor to Neanderthals and Modern Humans.

Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis)

400k–27k YA. Europe/Middle East. Cold adapted (stocky). Buried dead. Mousterian tools.

Homo sapiens Origins

Evolved in Africa ~300k YA. Left Africa ~60k YA.

Homo floresiensis ("The Hobbit")

Dwarf species on Flores, Indonesia. Likely descended from H. erectus.

Homo naledi

South African species. Possible intentional disposal of dead in caves (controversial).

Sagittal Crest

Ridge on top of skull for jaw muscles. Found in Paranthropus (NOT Homo).

Foramen Magnum Position

Anterior (forward) = Biped. Posterior (back) = Quadruped.

Prognathism

The forward projection of the jaw/face (snout).

Diastema

Gap in teeth for canines. Present in apes, absent in humans.

Valgus Angle

Inward angle of the femur (thigh bone) that keeps knees under the body in bipeds.

Encephalization

The evolutionary increase in relative brain size.

Replacement Model (Out of Africa)

Theory: H. sapiens replaced other hominins without interbreeding. (Disproven by DNA).

Assimilation/Partial Replacement Model

Theory: H. sapiens interbred with local populations (Neanderthals) as they spread. (Supported by DNA).

Multiregional Model

Theory: H. erectus evolved into H. sapiens in all regions simultaneously via gene flow. (Rejected).

Dating: Radiocarbon (C14)

Absolute dating for ORGANIC material. Effective up to ~50,000 years.

Dating: Potassium-Argon (K-Ar)

Absolute dating for VOLCANIC ROCK. Used for very old sites (>100k YA).

Dating: Stratigraphy

Relative dating. Law of Superposition (Lower layers are older).

Experimental Archaeology

Recreating past technologies (e.g., flintknapping) to understand them.

Ethnoarchaeology

Studying living people to understand the archaeological record.

Sexual Dimorphism

Physical differences between males and females.

Bergmann's Rule

Bodies are larger/stockier in cold climates to conserve heat (e.g., Neanderthals).

Allen's Rule

Limbs are shorter in cold climates (conserve heat) and longer in warm climates (dissipate heat).

Lactose Persistence

Ability to digest milk as an adult. An example of biocultural evolution (dairying).

Vitamin D Hypothesis

Light skin evolved in north to allow Vitamin D absorption.

Folate Hypothesis

Dark skin evolved in high-UV zones to protect Folate.

Sickle Cell Anemia

Genetic adaptation. Heterozygotes are resistant to Malaria.

Ussher's Date of Creation

October 23, 4004 BC.

Lewontin's Race Study

Found that only 6% of human variation exists between races (94% is within groups).

Primate Species Count

Approximately 230 species of non-human primates.

O-Type Blood Statistic

Frequency is almost 100% in Indigenous South Americans.

Pleistocene Sea Levels

Dropped by 500 ft (150 m) during glaciations.

Mendelian Traits (Peas)

Principle of Independent Assortment: 50% chance a heterozygous plant produces a specific phenotype (in specific cross).

Skhul Site Date

130,000–100,000 YA.

Lantian Site Date (China)

H. erectus fossils dated to 1.15 million years old.

Dmanisi Site

1.8 MYA. Georgia. Oldest Hominins outside Africa (small H. erectus).

Gona Site

2.6 MYA. Oldest stone tools.

Schoningen Spears

400,000 YA. Wooden spears found in Germany (H. heidelbergensis).

Nariokotome Boy

Most complete H. erectus skeleton (East Africa).

Taung Child

First Australopithecus africanus fossil found (South Africa).

Gran Dolina (Atapuerca)

Site of H. antecessor (1.2 MYA), possible cannibalism.

Denisovans

Sister group to Neanderthals, identified via DNA. Interbred with Asians/Melanesians.

Mousterian Industry

Stone tools associated with Neanderthals.

Clovis Points

Fluted spear points in North America (~13,000 YA).

Pre-Clovis Sites

Sites older than 13,000 YA (e.g., Monte Verde) supporting early arrival.

T/F: Forensic Anthropologists determine the Cause of Death.

False (Medical Examiner does).

T/F: Agriculture led to a decline in infectious disease.

False (It increased disease due to density).

T/F: The wheel was invented for transportation.

False (Pottery).

T/F: Kennewick Man was Caucasian.

False (First Nations).

T/F: Paranthropus is a direct ancestor of humans.

False (Evolutionary dead end).

T/F: H. erectus was the first to use fire.

True.

T/F: H. habilis is found in Asia.

False (Africa only).

T/F: Carbon dating works on stone.

False (Organic material only).

T/F: The Solutrean hypothesis is widely accepted.

False.

T/F: Bioarchaeology focuses on the elite/rich.

False (Focuses on all, esp. marginalized).

T/F: Neanderthals had larger brains than modern humans.

True.

T/F: Oldowan tools are bifacial.

False (Unifacial).

T/F: Acheulean tools are bifacial.

True.