ap psych sem 1 final

ap psych yo

UNIT 0

Foundations & Methods

Perspectives:

Biological

Explains behavior through brain structures, neurotransmitters, and genetics.

Psychoanalytic

Focuses on unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences.

Behavioral

Studies observable behavior shaped by learning and reinforcement.

Humanistic

Emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

Cognitive

Examines how people think, perceive, and process information.

Sociocultural

Looks at how culture and social context influence behavior.

Evolutionary

Explains behavior as adaptations shaped by natural selection.

Subfields:

Biological Psychology

Studies brain, hormones, and genetics in behavior.

Cognitive Psychology

Focuses on thinking, memory, and problem solving.

Developmental Psychology

Examines physical, cognitive, and social growth across the lifespan.

Social Psychology

Studies how people influence and interact with others.

Personality

Investigates enduring patterns of thoughts and behaviors.

Health Psychology

Explores psychological factors in health and illness.

Therapy

Application of psychological principles to treat disorders.

Psychiatry

Medical specialty focused on mental illness and medication.

Industrial/Organizational

Applies psychology to workplace behavior.

Positive Psychology

Studies human strengths, happiness, and well-being.

Biases:

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to seek information that supports existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

Belief that events were predictable after they occur.

Overconfidence

Overestimating one’s knowledge or abilities.

Research Methods:

Experiment

Research method that manipulates variables to establish cause-and-effect.

Independent Variable (IV)

Variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

Variable measured as the outcome.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance.

Case Study

In-depth examination of a single subject.

Correlation

Measures relationship strength between variables.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in real-world settings.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical analysis combining multiple studies.

Research Quality & Ethics:

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Falsifiable

Can be proven wrong.

Operational Definition

Precise description of how variables are measured.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm results.

Confounding Variable

Uncontrolled variable affecting results.

Sample

Subset of a population studied.

Population

Entire group of interest.

Sampling Bias

Sample not representative of population.

Random Sample

Every individual has equal chance of selection.

Convenience Sample

Participants chosen based on availability.

Control Group

Group not receiving treatment.

Experimental Group

Group receiving treatment.

Placebo

Inactive substance used as control.

Single/Double Blind

Participant and/or researcher unaware of group assignment.

Experimenter Bias

Researcher expectations influence results.

Social Desirability Bias

Participants answer to appear favorable.

Qualitative Measures

Non-numerical data (descriptions).

Quantitative Measures

Numerical data.

Structured Interview

Pre-set questions asked uniformly.

Likert Scale

Rating scale measuring attitudes.

Peer Review

Evaluation of research by experts.

Informed Consent

Participants agree knowing risks.

Informed Assent

Minor’s agreement to participate.

Confidentiality

Personal data kept private.

Anonymity

Identity unknown.

Debriefing

Post-study explanation.

Deception

Withholding true purpose when justified.

UNIT 1

Biological Bases of Behavior

Heredity & Environment:

Evolutionary Perspective

Behavior shaped by survival value.

Natural Selection

Traits aiding survival are passed on.

Twin Studies

Compare genetics vs. environment.

Eugenics

Discredited attempt to improve genetics through selective breeding.

Nervous System:

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves outside CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movement.

Sympathetic

Activates fight-or-flight.

Parasympathetic

Rest-and-digest response.

Neurons & Neurotransmission:

Neuron

Nerve cell transmitting information.

Glial Cells

Support and nourish neurons.

Sensory Neurons

Carry input to CNS.

Motor Neurons

Carry commands from CNS.

Interneurons

Connect neurons within CNS.

Resting Potential

Neuron’s inactive charge.

Depolarization

Electrical activation of neuron.

Threshold

Level needed to fire neuron.

All-or-Nothing Principle

Neuron fires completely or not at all.

Refractory Period

Recovery time after firing.

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters reabsorbed.

Neurotransmitters:

Dopamine

Reward and movement.

Serotonin

Mood and sleep.

Norepinephrine

Alertness.

Glutamate

Major excitatory transmitter.

GABA

Major inhibitory transmitter.

Acetylcholine

Muscle action and memory.

Endorphins

Pain control.

Substance P

Pain perception.

Drugs:

Agonist Drugs

Increase neurotransmitter action.

Antagonist Drugs

Block neurotransmitter action.

Stimulants

Increase CNS activity.

Depressants

Decrease CNS activity.