Chapter 16

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sensory transduction

the process by which sensory stimuli are transduced into slow, graded receptor potentials

receptor potential

A slow, graded electrical potential produced by a receptor cell in response to a physical stimulus

modality

type of stimulus

sensory projection

brain identifies site of stimulation

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

duration

length of time something lasts

phasic receptors

rapidly adapt to a constant stimulus and turn off

tonic receptor

adapt slowly, generate nerve signals more steadily

chemo-

chemical

thermo-

heat

mechano-

mechanical

photo-

light

nociceptor

pain

Interoceptors

monitor visceral organs and functions

Proprioceptors

monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints

Exteroceptors

provide information about the external environment

general senses

temperature, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception

special senses

vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium

1st order neuron

detects a stimulus and transmits a signal to the spinal cord or brainstem

2nd order neuron

decussation to opposite side in spinal cord, medulla, or pons

end in thalamus, except for proprioception, which ends in cerebellum

3rd order neuron

thalamus to cerebral cortex

neuropathy

nerve disease

bradykinin

a powerful vasodilator that increases capillary permeability and constricts smooth muscle

histamine

a chemical that is responsible for the symptoms of an allergy

Prostaglandins

Intensify histamine and kinin effect

general pathway

conscious pain

spinalthalamic tract

sensory nerves follow the dorsal (posterior) root and do not cross in the medulla, this pathway is called the

spinoreticular

sensation of pain from tissue injury

gracile fasciculus

carries signals from the midthoracic and lower parts of the body

referred pain

pain that is felt in a location other than where the pain originates

endogenous opioids

A family of peptide transmitters that have been called the body's own narcotics. The three kinds are enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins.

spinal gating

stops pain signals at the posterior horn of the spinal cord

gustation

the sensation of taste

lingual papillae

bumps and projections on the tongue that are the sites of the taste buds

Filifrom papillae

bumps with tiny thread like projections; allow us to experience textures of food

fungiform papillae

Mushroom-like protuberances often containing taste buds and located on the sides and tip of the tongue

vallate papillae

largest taste buds with 8-12 forming "V" at back of tongue

apical microvilli

taste hairs

basal cells

stem cells that replace taste cells every 7 to 10 days

sweet

energy source

salty

salt

sour

acids taste

bitter

potential poisons

umami

proteins to grow and repair tissue

olfactory mucosa

lines the superior nasal cavity and contains smell receptors

olfactory cells

sensitive nerve cells in nasal passages

hydrophilic

water loving

hydrophobic

water hating

sound

a disturbance that travels through a medium as a longitudinal wave

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

loudness

a sound's intensity

pinna

outer ear

tympanic membrane

a membrane forming part of the organ of hearing, which vibrates in response to sound waves. In humans and other higher vertebrates it forms the eardrum, between the outer and middle ear

auditory tube

channel between the middle ear and the nasopharynx; eustachian tube

malleus

hammer; first of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear

incus

anvil; middle of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear

stapes

stirrup; last of the three auditory ossicles of the middle ear

ear ossicles

three small bones located in the middle ear cavity that serve to transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear

bony labyrinth

passageways in temporal bone

membraneous labyrinth

filled with endolymph

scala media

Middle chamber of the cochlea; filled with endolymph

scala vestibuli

leads from oval window to apex of cochlea

scala tympani

terminates at round window; contains perilymph

Inner Hair Cells (IHC)

-sensory function: send information to brain

-determine what frequencies of vibration are present

Outer Hair Cells (OHC)

-cochlear amplifier: amplify the IHC signal by moving the basilar membrane

-increase the range of sounds that are heard (through compression)

-sharpen the response of the IHC

-send some information to the brain

tympanic reflex

muscle contractions that occur during loud sounds, to lessen the transfer of sound vibrations to inner ear, and prevent damage to hearing receptors

tensor tympani

the muscle attached to the malleus; tensing the tensor tympani decreases vibration

stapedius

the muscle attached to the stapes; tensing the stapedius decreases vibration

stereocilia

small hairlike projections on the tops of inner and outer hair cells

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

cochlear tuning

increases ability of cochlea to receive some sound frequencies

vestibular ganglia

visible lump in vestibular nerve

spiral ganglia

buried in modiolus of cochlea

equlibrium

A state of balance

static equilibrium

a condition where there are no net external forces acting upon a particle or rigid body and the body remains at rest or continues at a constant velocity

dynamic equilibrium

a state of balance between continuing processes

otoliths

small crystals in the fluid-filled vestibular sacs of the inner ear that, when shifted by gravity, stimulate nerve cells that inform the brain of the position of the head

crista ampullaris

mound of hair cells and gelatinous material in the ampulla of a semicircular canal

Tinnitis

ringing in the ears

vertigo

the sensation of dizziness

vision

the ability to see

visible light

electromagnetic waves that you can see

eyebrows

located superior to the eye, they partially shade the eyes, and protect them from sweat

eyelids

(palpebrae) two movable flaps of skin which cover and uncover each eyeball

conjunctiva

mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and outer surface of the eyeball

Conjunctivitis

inflammation of the conjunctiva (pink eye)

lacrimal apparatus

the structures that produce, store, and remove tears

fibrous layer of eye

sclera and cornea

vascular layer of eye

choroid, ciliary body, iris

internal layer of eye

retina and optic nerve

cornea

the transparent layer forming the front of the eye

aqueous humor

fluid in the eye, found between the cornea and the lens

lens

changes shape to focus light on retina

vitreous humor

jellylike substance found behind the lens in the posterior cavity of the eye that maintains its shape