Chapter 14- European Exploration and Conquest: 1450-1650 in Global Context

What was the Afroeurasian trade world?

A trading system linking Asia, Africa, and Europe, characterized by competition among merchants for goods like spices and silks.

What motivated Europeans to seek better access to Asian trade goods by 1550?

A desire for luxury goods such as Asian silks and spices, despite having few desirable products to trade.

What significant event occurred in 1492 related to European exploration?

Christopher Columbus began his voyages to the New World.

How did the arrival of Europeans impact the Americas?

The Americas were integrated into a global network of trade and political empires dominated by Europeans.

What was the role of the Indian Ocean in the Afroeurasian trade world?

It served as a crossroads for trade among China, India, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.

What was Malacca's significance in the 15th century?

It became a major commercial entrepôt for goods awaiting redistribution.

Who was Marco Polo and why is he significant?

A Venetian trader whose travels to China inspired European interest in Asian luxury goods.

What was the impact of the Mongol Empire on European trade?

It opened China to Western trade, facilitating commerce and cultural exchange.

What was Admiral Zheng He's contribution to trade?

He led seven maritime expeditions to enhance China's prestige and seek tribute-paying alliances.

What led to the abandonment of Zheng He's maritime expeditions?

The high expense of the voyages and renewed Mongol threats after his death.

How did India's trade influence the world economy?

India was a major supplier of spices and textiles, crucial to the global trading system.

What was the Mamluk Egyptian Empire known for?

It was a powerful empire and a center of Islamic learning and trade until its defeat by the Ottomans.

What role did Swahili city-states play in trade?

They engaged in the Indian Ocean trade, exchanging goods like ivory and slaves for textiles and spices.

What was the significance of the Akan peoples in the 15th century?

They were a source of much of the gold that reached Europe from West Africa.

What characterized the trade relationships in the Indian Ocean before European dominance?

Mutual self-interest limited violence and monopolization, allowing for a diverse trading environment.

What goods did Europeans primarily seek from Asia?

Silks, spices, and other luxury items.

What was the impact of the Black Death on trade?

It caused a decline in trade volume during the catastrophic years of the epidemic.

What was the population growth in China by the end of the Ming Dynasty?

The population tripled to between 150 million and 200 million people.

What were the primary goods traded from India?

Pepper, cotton textiles, and silk.

What was the cultural significance of the namban-jin in Japan?

They were depicted in artworks as Portuguese traders, reflecting cultural encounters.

What was the primary purpose of Zheng He's voyages?

To enhance China's prestige and establish diplomatic relations.

What led to the rise of European powers in Asian trade?

China's withdrawal from external trade after the Ming Dynasty opened opportunities for Europeans.

What characterized the cities of Kilwa, Malindi, Mogadishu, and Mombasa?

They were prosperous Swahili city-states known for their culture and trade in the Indian Ocean.

From which region did most of the gold that reached Europe in the fifteenth century originate?

The western part of the Sudan region in West Africa and from the Akan peoples near present-day Ghana.

How was gold transported across the Sahara to North Africa?

By Arab and African traders on camels.

What significant pilgrimage did Mansa Musa undertake in 1324/25?

A pilgrimage to Mecca.

What was the impact of Mansa Musa's pilgrimage on the kingdom of Mali?

It gained prestige and became an important player on the overland trade route.

What was the role of the Port of Calicut in the spice trade?

It was a center of the Indian Ocean spice trade during the Middle Ages.

Which explorer arrived in Calicut in 1498 and initiated trade there?

Vasco da Gama.

What two major Muslim empires dominated trade in the Middle East during the fifteenth century?

The Persian Safavids and the Turkish Ottomans.

What city did the Ottomans capture in May 1453, renaming it Istanbul?

Constantinople.

What was the economic competition between the Safavids and Ottomans primarily about?

Control over western trade routes to the East.

What was the significance of the Ottoman Empire's expansion for Europeans?

It raised economic concerns and led to a desire for new trade routes free of Ottoman control.

Which two Italian city-states controlled the European luxury trade with the East in the late Middle Ages?

Venice and Genoa.

What type of goods did Venetian merchants specialize in during their trade with the East?

Spices, silks, and carpets.

What was the profit margin for Venetian merchants on spices purchased around 1400?

About 40 percent.

What was a major consequence of the diversion of gold away from trans-Sahara routes?

It weakened the inland states of Africa politically and economically.

What were the two main objects of trade mentioned in the context of African trade?

Gold and slaves.

What was the belief held by Europeans about a powerful Christian nation in Africa?

They believed in a mythical king, Prester John, who was a descendant of one of the three kings who visited Jesus.

What was the impact of Zheng He's voyages (1405-1433) on Indian Ocean trade?

They aimed to impose Ming dominance of trade and tribute.

What was the role of Muslim merchants in the fifteenth-century trade?

They dominated trade, linking ports in East Africa and the Red Sea with those in India and the Malay Archipelago.

What was the significance of the Ottoman Empire's control over trade routes?

It limited European access to Eastern goods and prompted the search for new trade routes.

What did the early expeditions led by Mansa Musa's predecessor aim to achieve?

To explore the Atlantic Ocean.

What was the primary reason for the hostilities between Portuguese and Arab traders in Calicut?

The Portuguese sought to dominate the trade that had previously been controlled by Arab traders.

What was one of the main reasons for the revival of trade in the fifteenth century?

The decline following the Black Death and the Mongol invasions was followed by a resurgence in trade.

What was the significance of the Venetian merchants' operations in Cairo?

It opened a gateway to Asian trade.

What was the most important spice traded in the 1400s?

Pepper, grown in India and Indonesia, constituted 60 percent of the spices purchased.

What goods did Venetians trade for Eastern luxury items?

Venetians exchanged European products such as Spanish and English wool, German metal goods, Flemish textiles, and silk cloth.

How did Venetians fund their purchases from the East?

They funded purchases through shipping and trade in firearms and slaves, with half of their trade involving precious metals.

What was the role of Genoa in trade during the Crusades?

Genoa dominated the northern route to Asia through the Black Sea and expanded its reach to Persia and the Far East.

What was the significance of the 1291 expedition sponsored by Genoa?

The expedition aimed to find a route to India but the ships were lost, reflecting Genoese interest in Atlantic exploration.

What shift occurred in Genoa's focus during the fifteenth century?

Genoa shifted from trade to finance and from the Black Sea to the western Mediterranean.

What was a major element of Italian trade during this period?

Slavery, with merchants purchasing slaves in the Balkans and selling them in Egypt or the Mediterranean.

Who were the conquistadors?

Spanish soldier-explorers like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro who sought to conquer the New World for Spain.

What is a caravel?

A small, maneuverable, three-mast sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century.

What was Ptolemy's Geography?

A second-century work that synthesized classical geography knowledge and introduced longitude and latitude concepts.

What economic conditions prompted European expansion in the 15th century?

A revival of population and economic activity after the Black Death created demand for Eastern luxuries, especially spices.

What obstacles did Europeans face in fulfilling their demand for spices?

The fall of Constantinople and subsequent Ottoman control of trade routes created significant obstacles.

Why were spices highly desirable in Europe?

Spices added flavor to food, were used in religious rituals, and served as high-status goods for European elites.

What religious motivations fueled European exploration?

The spirit of the Reconquista and a desire to spread Christianity in newly discovered territories.

How did the Reconquista influence Iberian attitudes towards exploration?

Iberians brought militaristic and administrative practices from the Reconquista to the Americas.

What were the ambitions of explorers like Christopher Columbus?

To discover new territories for spreading Christianity and to find a direct trade route to Asia.

What did Vasco da Gama seek when he reached Calicut, India?

He sought 'Christians and spices.'

What challenges did sailors face during voyages in this era?

Sailors faced overcrowding, danger, and hunger, often living in cramped conditions.

What was the impact of the Black Death on European exploration?

It led to a revival of population and economic activity, prompting new exploration efforts.

How did Genoese and Venetian merchants contribute to the Atlantic slave trade?

They became important players in the trade as Spanish colonies grew in the New World.

What was the significance of the spice trade for European elites?

Spices served as a means to demonstrate social status due to their expense and exotic origins.

What was the primary goal of the Spanish conquistadors?

To gain land, titles, and wealth through the conquest of indigenous empires.

What was the role of Genoese merchants in the Spanish colonization of the New World?

They provided skills and capital to finance Spanish colonization efforts.

What were the main motivations for European explorers during the Renaissance?

To gain glory, wealth, and knowledge about unknown territories.

What was the living condition like for sailors during long voyages?

Sailors lived and worked in cramped spaces of 1,600 to 2,000 square feet, often accompanied by animals and pests, making travel uncomfortable and oppressive.

Why did men choose to join crews on voyages?

Men joined crews to escape poverty, continue family trades, or seek better lives as illegal immigrants.

What challenges did sailors' wives face during voyages of exploration?

Sailors' wives were often left alone for months or years and struggled to feed their families, sometimes waiting decades to collect their husbands' salaries.

What role did merchants play in early voyages of exploration?

Merchants provided capital and sought official sponsorship from the Crown to support expeditions.

What was a significant factor in encouraging European exploration in the late fifteenth century?

Competition among European monarchs for prestige and profit from overseas exploration drove a steady stream of expeditions.

What was one of the most popular books in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries regarding exploration?

The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, which contained fictional accounts of travels in the Middle East, India, and China.

What advancements in shipbuilding were made by the Portuguese during the Age of Exploration?

The Portuguese developed the caravel, a three-mast sailing ship that was more maneuverable and could carry more cargo.

What navigational technique did mariners use to determine their course during voyages?

Mariners used 'dead reckoning' to estimate their speed and direction based on time traveled.

What was the significance of Ptolemy's Geography in the context of exploration?

Ptolemy's Geography provided significant improvements in cartography, depicting the world as round and introducing latitude and longitude, despite containing errors.

What instrument did Portuguese scholars develop for celestial navigation?

The astrolabe, which allowed mariners to determine their latitude at sea by measuring the altitude of celestial bodies.

What was the impact of the compass on maritime navigation?

The compass allowed mariners to determine their direction, significantly improving navigation techniques.

What were some technological improvements sought by the Iberian powers for exploration?

Improvements in shipbuilding, weaponry, and navigation were actively sought to undertake successful voyages.

How did the Portuguese adapt their sailing techniques to explore the Atlantic?

They learned to sail against the wind by going further west to catch winds from the southwest.

Who played a leading role in the early phases of Portuguese exploration?

Prince Henry (1394-1460) was instrumental in promoting exploration and navigation.

What was the primary activity of Portugal before its exploration success?

Portugal was primarily engaged in fishing and subsistence farming.

What was the significance of the triangular lateen sail in exploration?

The lateen sail allowed caravels to tack against the wind, enhancing their maneuverability.

What was the role of local pilots in European exploration?

Local pilots, like the one Vasco da Gama employed, guided expeditions using their knowledge of local waters.

What was the effect of the reintroduction of Ptolemy's Geography on European explorers?

It provided access to ancient geographical knowledge, shaping the understanding of the world for explorers.

What were the consequences of Ptolemy's errors in Geography for future exploration?

Ptolemy's errors led to misconceptions about the size of the world and the distances between continents, affecting navigation and exploration strategies.

What types of stories captivated the educated audience in Europe during the Age of Exploration?

Tales of fantastic places and unknown peoples, often fictional, captured the imagination of the educated elite.

What was the impact of the Iberian tradition on navigational techniques?

The Iberian tradition of Jewish and Arab mathematics and astronomy contributed significantly to advancements in navigation.

Why was Henry referred to as 'the Navigator'?

He supported the study of geography and navigation and sponsored annual expeditions down the western coast of Africa.

What were the main objectives of Portuguese exploration?

Military glory, conversion of Muslims, and finding gold, slaves, and an overseas route to the spice markets of India.

What significant event in 1415 marked the beginning of European overseas expansion?

Portugal's conquest of Ceuta, an Arab city in northern Morocco.

What Atlantic islands did the Portuguese begin to settle in the 1420s?

Madeira (ca. 1420) and the Azores (1427).

What was the first African commercial settlement founded by the Portuguese?

Arguin in North Africa, established in 1443.

What economic developments occurred by the time of Henry's death in 1460?

Thriving sugar plantations on Atlantic islands and the first arrival of enslaved Africans in Portugal.

How did the Portuguese approach trade in West Africa?

They sought easier and faster profits by inserting themselves into pre-existing trading systems rather than establishing large settlements.

What was the role of African rulers in the early Portuguese trading relations?

They were equal partners with the Portuguese, benefiting from their experienced armies and European vulnerability to tropical diseases.

Who rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, and what was the outcome?

Bartholomew Diaz rounded the Cape but had to turn back due to storms and a threatened mutiny.