psya02 final exam

psya02

preferential looking

a research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at

when do babies achieve adult-like acuity?

6 months after birth

what do newborn's reflexes consist of?

grasping
sucking
rooting
swallowing
tonic neck reflex

cephalocaudal rule

the "top-to-bottom" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet (significant changes occur in the brain and the head before changes happen in the extremities)

proximodistal rule

the "inside-to-outside" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery (significant development occurs first at centrally located features, such as the heart or the lungs, before occurring at more peripheral locations, including the hands or fingers)

When are teratogens most harmful?

the period of embryo

The period of fetus

From 9 weeks after conception to birth, classified as a period of growth and minor refinements. The fetus gains weight and moves into the head down position that is preferred for child birth. fetal brains develop sulci and gyri

constructivist

children are active contributors to their own learning, that is, they construct their own knowledge

dialectical

the growth of cognitive structures occurs when individuals encounter conflicting information that alters their existing perspectives on the world

what are the four stages of children's cognitive development?

sensorimotor stage
pre-operational stage
concrete operational stage
formal operational stage

theory of mind

the understanding that human behavior is guided by mental representations, and that these mental representations differ across individuals

what task is used to measure theory of mind?

false belief task

attachment

the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver

Mary Main identified three attachment styles in adults that parallel those observed in infants. What are they?

secure anxious avoidant

attachment style can predict what outcomes in adulthood?

academic achievement
emotional health
relationship quality
self esteem

positivity bias

young children almost always describe themselves positively

young children describe themselves...

in physical terms and almost always positively

why does positivity bias decline quickly at school age?

social comparison begins
cognitive skills increase (perspective-taking increases)
school begins objective evaluations

rank order stability

children with lower self-esteem tend to have lower self-esteem as adults

identity formation

the chief task of adolescence

achievements in adolescence

abstract thinking and self-socialization

challenges in adolescence

personal fable and imaginary audience

identity confusion

an incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self that often occurs in Erikson's stage of identity versus identity confusion

identity foreclosure

premature commitment to an identity without adequate consideration of other options

negative identity

identity that stands in opposition to others/social norms

Which of the two declines more quickly? Episodic or semantic memory?

Episodic memory

Why do older adults feel happier?

They tend to remember positive stimuli better than negative stimuli
Their amygdalae are more activated by positive emotions than negative ones

Why do older adults tend to value having close social groups?

it is related to their shorter futures

Binet-Simon intelligence test consists of...

puzzles
object-naming
counting

IQ scores positively correlated with protective factors. What are they?

high parental involvements, stimulating physical environment etc

IQ scores negatively correlated with risk factors. What are they?

low socio-economic status, low maternal education etc

three of the eight types of intelligence in Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences are tested in standard IQ tests. What are they?

linguistic intelligence
logical-math intelligence
spatial intelligence

Evidence for Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

the areas of intelligence have different developmental patterns
damage to a specific brian area may impact only one type of intelligence and not other

What does emotional intelligence consist of?

the ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning
description of one's own emotions
management of one's own emotions
detection of other's emotions

the two dimensions of emotions

valence (positive or negative)
psychological arousal (severity)

two major neural structures related to emotion

the amygdala and prefrontal cortex

the universality hypothesis

facial expressions are evolved in order to aid in survival and therefore may be somewhat universal in the human population

four strategies to hide our emotions

intensification
de-intensification
masking
neutralizing

reliable muscles

facial muscles that are resistant to conscious change

duration of sincere facial gesture

0.5 to 5 seconds

motivation

the psychological reason for producing an action

hedonic principle

all motivation extends from attraction to pleasure and avoidance of pain

drives & incentives

drives are basic needs for nuitrition and sex and incentives are ways we satisfy the drives

three psychological dimensions of motivation

intrinsic vs extrinsic
conscious vs unconscious
approach vs avoidance

three major stages of prenatal development

the period of the zygote, the period of the embryo and the period of the fetus

the primary characteristic of the period of the zygote

rapid cell division

ectopic pregnancy

a pregnancy that results from the implantation of the blastocyst into one of the fallopian tubes instead of the uterine wall

why are ectopic pregnancies dangerous?

Whereas the uterus is a muscle that can expand (as the zygote grows) and contract (to expel the fetus during childbirth), the fallopian tubes do not have this ability. For this reason, pregnant women may have to terminate their pregnancy to avoid the possibility of a ruptured fallopian tube, which can result in death.

monozygotic twins

Also known as "identical" twins, monozygotic twins have 100% shared genetics. During conception, one egg was fertilized by one sperm and then splits into two separate cells with identical DNA. Identical twins are always the same sex.

dizygotic twins

Also known as "fraternal" twins or non-identical twins. In relatively rare cases a woman's ovaries will release more than one egg at a time. Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are each fertilized by separate sperm cells. The level of shared genetics is approximately 50% and is similar to any siblings born apart from the same parents. Fraternal twins may be of different sexes.

assimilation

the incorporation of new information into existing cognitive structures

accommodation

the creation of new cognitive structures to house new information

equilibration

states in which cognitive structures agree with external realities

disequilibration

states in which cognitive structures do not agree with external realities. when this occurs, cognitive structures must be modified through assimilation or accommodation

primary circular reactions

in the second sub stage of sensorimotor development, infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions on their own bodies

secondary circular reactions

in the third sub stage of sensorimotor development, infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions outside their own bodies

tertiary circular reactions

in the fifth substage of sensorimotor development, infants learn about the world through their activities as "little scientists" they actively explore the world using different combinations of items to see how these changes affect their observed outcomes

mental representation

in the final substage of sensorimotor development, infants remember and re-enact situations and events that happened previously without any ongoing perceptual supports

concrete operational period

The third stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, lasting from ages 7 to 11, marked by increased cognitive ability in reasoning about concrete events. They can evaluate and make sense of what they can physically see in the world around them, but thinking about hypothetical situations is difficult.

three transformative principles children learn during the concrete operational period

identity
compensation
inversion

object permanence

an understanding that objects and individuals continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, a development that occurs around nine months of age

preoperational period

the second stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, lasting from ages two to seven: this stage is marked by a child's increasing ability to use symbols and engage in logical thinking

two sub stages of preoperational period

preconceptual thinking and intuitive thinking

symbolic thinking

The ability to use symbols (e.g., language) to stand for other things (e.g., complex feelings, ideas).

animism

preschooler belief that stuffed toys and other inanimate objects have feelings

egocentrism

difficulty of children in adopting the perspective of another individual

sociocultural theory

cognitive development is a continuous process that is intimately linked to the context in which children are raised

scaffold

Cognitive support offered by a teacher to a learner to assist the learner to acquire new skills or knowledge. Such support is withdrawn when the learner can perform the skill on his/her own.

zone of proximal development

the distance between what a child can accomplish alone and what a child can accomplish with some assistance.

What was Harry Harlow's experiment about?

examine whether attachment to a "mother" was based on sustenance (the provision of food) or comfort (the provision of warmth and the ability of the mother to serve as a secure base

what was john bowlby's theory about attachment relationships in infancy?

Bowlby believed that mammals develop attachment bonds as a means of promoting their survival and that without them, infants would perish due to a lack of food or protection

securely attached

In attachment theory, an attachment style of infants and adults characterized by emotional closeness and a healthy level of independence and exploration.

insecure-resistant

In attachment theory, an attachment style of infants characterized by being clingy after the parent returns; may be born out of inconsistent parental responsiveness.

insecure-avoidant

In attachment theory, an attachment style of infants characterized by avoidance of a primary caregiver upon reunion after separation; may be born of out parental disengagement with the infant.

disorganized attachment

In attachment theory, an attachment style of infants characterized by fear and dissociation in wanting to both approach and avoid an attachment figure; may be born out of parent abuse.

heinz dilemma

In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, a vignette (short story) presenting a moral dilemma to assess moral reasoning.

pre-conventional morality

In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the first stage of morality in which children think of morality in terms of punishments and rewards.

conventional morality

in kohlberg's theory of moral development; the second stage of morality in which a child placed value on social conventions, social order, and being viewed as "good" or "bad" by others

post-conventional morality

In Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the final stage of morality in which someone bases moral decisions on abstract principles instead of societal expectations or the judgment of others.

formal operational period

The fourth stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, starting at approximately age 12 (although some individuals never reach this level of cognitive functioning). This stage is marked by the ability to think abstractly and consider hypothetical situations.

adolescent egocentrism

Adolescents' perception that others are focused on them, their feelings, and their actions.

personal fable

adolescents think of themselves as unique and invulnerable to risky situations

psychosocial moratorium

a period during which individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities

identity achievement

those who have completed their identity crisis and have committed to who they believe themselves to be

dementia

deterioration of brain function affecting cognitive processes such as memory, language and judgment, and included a range of diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Lewy body disease, and Parkinson's disease

Alzheimer's disease

A disease marked by gradual onset of impairment in cognitive functions of memory, reasoning. and judgment

social clock

Cultural norms and societal expectations about the timing of key life events such as marriage, having children and retiring.

emerging adulthood

A period of development ranging from the late teens to the mid-20s marked by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and exploring possibilities for one's life.

socioemotional selectivity theory

a theory on aging which specifies that norms perception of time impacts selection and pursuit of goals, with younger adults favoring information-related goals and older adults favoring emotion-related goals tied to well-being and relationships

What makes Erik Erikson stand out?

He is one of the few developmental psychologists who has attempted to understand behavior from birth to death

novelty preference

The preference of infants in looking longer at new information in the environment, as compared to old information.

theory of mind

an ability that emerges around age 4, which allows people to understand that others have feelings, thoughts, and desires that differ from one's ownr

flynn effect

the findings by flynn that on average IQ scores were rising even on tests which are supposed to be immune to cultural influences. The result is controversial since it implies that in average, most people several generations back were quite unintelligent

three reasons why IQ scores are increasing over time

1. improvement in nutrition and medical care
2. improvement in education
3. increase in environmental complexity that is a byproduct of rapid changing technologu

According to Flynn, in today's world we do much more \______ thinking, whereas Luris found that in the early 1900s, people used \______ thinking.

abstract; concrete

three basic abilities of intelligence according to Binet and Simon

direction (knowing what to do and how to do it)
adaptation (creating strategies for implementing this knowledge and monitoring it's progress)
criticism (stepping back and finding errors in one's thinking)

mental age

one's mental age indicates the average age of children who can solve the set of problems that a particular child is capable of solving