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What is energy

The capacity to cause change and the ability to rearrange a collection of matter

What is kinetic energy?

The energy of motion

What are examples of kinetic energy?

Anything in motion, like running, starting a fire(friction), a ball rolling down a hill

What is potential energy

stored energy

What are examples of potential energy

Position(gravitational or elastic) and chemical bonding (chemical energy), food, plants

Machines and organism can ____ kinetic energy to potential energy and vice versa

transform

What is the Principle of Conservation of Energy (first law of thermodynamics)

Energy cannot be created or destroyed

Energy can be converted from one form to another

What is the rule of entropy (2nd law of thermodynamics)

every energy conversion releases some randomized energy in the form of heat

What is an example of entropy

Light bulbs: electrical energy is converted into light, but some energy is lost as heat (which is why light bulbs are always hot when you touch them)

Heat is a

type of kinetic energy

product of all energy conversions

What is chemical energy

it arises from the arrangement of atoms

can be released by a chemical reaction

Living cells and automobile engines are similar because they use the same basic process to make ___ ____ do work

chemical energy

What is cellular respiration

The energy releasing chemical breakdown of fuel molecules

where food molecules (such as glucose) are chemically broken down to release energy.

the storage of that energy in a form the cell can use to perform work

The energy from glucose breakdown is transferred to ATP during a process called oxidative phosphorylation (in the mitochondria).

When the cell needs energy, ATP breaks down into ADP + P (Adenosine Diphosphate + Phosphate), releasing stored energy for cellular activities.

Humans convert about 34% of the energy in ____ to useful work, such as the contraction of muscles.

food

About 66% of the energy released by the breakdown of fuel molecules generates ___ ___

body heat.

what is a calorie

the amount of energy that can raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 degree Celsius.

• Food Calories are _____ equal to 1,000 calories.

• kilocalories

• The ______ of calories in food is burned off by many activities.

• energy

What are some activities that burn lots of calories

running, dancing, bicycling, swimming, walking (exercise)

Chemical energy is

• Chemical energy is stored in the bonds of molecules like glucose, fats, and proteins.

• These molecules serve as fuel for cells.

  • When these molecules are broken down (especially glucose in cellular respiration), the stored chemical energy is released.

  • This energy is then used to power the production of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).

  • ATP stores the released chemical energy in its high-energy phosphate bonds.

  • When needed, ATP breaks down to release energy for various cellular activities (like muscle movement, nerve signaling, and active transport).

ATP energy

• acts like an energy shuttle,

• stores energy obtained from food, and

• releases it later as needed.

What does ATP stand for

adenosine triphosphate

What does ATP consist of

• an organic molecule called adenosine plus a tail of three phosphate groups and

• is broken down to ADP and a phosphate group, releasing energy.

• ATP energizes other molecules by transferring ____ _____.

• This energy helps cells perform:

• Phosphate groups

• mechanical work, (muscle contractions)

• transport work, ( substances that move in and out of cells)

• chemical work. ( transforms into another chemical molecule [chemical reactions] )

Adenosine is a

nucleotide

What are the bonds that hold the reactants made out of

water

What happens when you remove the last phosphate group from the triphosphate(ATP)

the molecule transforms into a diphosphate, releasing energy in the process, and the phosphate group becoming inorganic phosphate (Pi). 

What happens to the Pi

It is transferred to another molecule

Endergonic

absorbs free energy giving their products more total energy  ie. Photosynthesis

exergonic

• releases free energy leaving their products with less total energy; Energy released can be in the form of heat or light. Ie. Cellular Respiration

activation energy

extra energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction.  

• activates the reactants and

• triggers a chemical reaction.

ex of activation energy

A spark or a match is needed to start the combustion reaction that burns gas.

Cataysts

• reduce the amount of activation energy required to break or form bonds of reactant molecule(s) and thus speed up the reaction rate.

Metabolism

the total of all chemical reactions in an organism.

• Most metabolic reactions require the assistance of ______, proteins that speed up chemical reactions.

• enzymes

• All living cells contain______ of different enzymes, each promoting a different chemical reaction.

• thousands

Enzymes Characteristics

• What are enzymes classified as? A catalyst

• What is an enzyme made up of? Protein

  • How does an enzyme work?  Enzymes bind to a specific ( it is selective) reactant, or substrate, at an enzymes active site.  Substrates are the substances on which enzymes act upon. 

• Enzymes are shape specific and interact with specific substrate/ reactant molecules

• Enzymes are reusable and not affected by a chemical reaction.

• Enzymes may combine substrate molecules or break them down

• Enzymes may catalyze reactions in the reverse

• Enzymes may perform endergonic or exergonic reactions

What does each do?

• Lactase

• Protease

• Lipase

• DNA polymerase

• Lactase — break down lactose into glucose and galactose, found in small intestine

• Protease — break down amino acids, found in stomach

• Lipase — breaks down lips into glycerol and fatty acids

• DNA polymerase — builds DNA strands in cell replication

Lock & Key:

1. substrate binds perfectly at the active site of the enzyme to form an enzyme-substrate complex.

Induced Fit:

1. enzyme’s active site must stretch or grasp in order to bind the substrate and form the enzyme-substrate complex

catalysis

the process of adding a catalyst to facilitate a reaction

Presence of certain molecules can _____ enzyme activity:

enhance

Cofactors

• non protein helpers like essential trace elements ex. Minerals- Zinc, Iron, Copper, Fe, Ca, Ni

• Coenzymes,

• organic molecule helper affect enzyme function; ie. Vitamins- B complex, NAD+ FAD+ NADP+

How do these molecules affect enzyme function?

relates to a structural change - alters activity rate of enzyme by increasing it. 

These molecules help enzymes function more efficiently:

• Cofactors – Non-organic molecules like metal ions (Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, Fe²⁺) that stabilize enzyme structure.

• Coenzymes – Organic molecules (like vitamins) that assist in enzyme reactions.

• Example: Magnesium (Mg²⁺) is required for DNA polymerase to function properly when copying DNA.

Temperature :Cold, Warm, Hot  - 

What happens to enzyme action?

How does extreme Ph affect the enzyme’s function?

It denaturex the enzyme

DENATURATION: 

High temperatures or extreme pH changes the shape of the enzyme’s active site so that it can NO longer bind to the substrate molecule(s) 

Concentration of substrate/enzyme

low conc reaction time will be slow; high conc reaction time will increase to a saturation point

Concentrations of product

too much product may shut down catalysis- known as feedback inhibition

Inhibitor molecules

can change shape of enzyme’s active site to prevent catalysis.

Allosteric enzymes

have allosteric sites-  another site separate from the active site.  Allosteric enz function based on levels of product

Activator or inhibitor molecules can bind to and either change the enzyme’s shape in a way that ____ or _____ the active site

hides, exposes

• Enzyme inhibitors can prevent metabolic reactions by binding to

• the active site or

• near the active site, resulting in changes to the enzyme’s shape so that the active site no longer accepts the substrate.

• Competitive inhibitor

• Competitive inhibitors compete with the substrate for the same active site on the enzyme.

• When the competitive inhibitor binds to the active site, it prevents the substrate from binding there.

• As a result, the enzyme’s ability to catalyze the reaction is reduced because the substrate cannot access the active site.

• The effect of the inhibitor can be overcome by increasing the concentration of the substrate, which increases the likelihood that the substrate will bind to the active site rather than the inhibitor.

Noncompetitive inhibitor

• A non-competitive inhibitor binds to an alternative (allosteric) site on the enzyme, not the active site where the substrate binds.

• When the inhibitor binds to this alternative site, it causes a structural change in the enzyme, which reduces the enzyme's ability to bind the substrate or catalyze the reaction, regardless of whether the substrate is present.

• This lowers the enzyme's activity because the enzyme can no longer perform its function as effectively, even if the substrate is still bound to the active site.

• Some products of a reaction may inhibit the enzyme required for its production.

  • This is called

• feedback regulation.

• It prevents the cell from wasting resources.

• Inhibitors are not always harmful

• Many beneficial drugs work by inhibiting enzymes:

• Penicillin blocks the active site of an enzyme that bacteria use in making cell walls.

• Ibuprofen inhibits an enzyme involved in sending pain signals.

• Many cancer drugs inhibit enzymes that promote cell division.

•  Cyanide – inhibits an enzyme involved with the production of ATP in cellular respiration

•  Antibiotics – inhibit enzyme in bacteria that helps bacteria produce materials found in cell walls (why don’t antibiotics hurt us?)

What is the main link between endergonic and exergonic reactions

ATP

playing basketball is an example of what energy

kinetic energy

match being used to light a candle is an example of what energy

activation energy

glucose molecules is an example of what energy

potential energy

windmill blades turning is an example of what energy

kinetic

waterfall is an example of what energy

kinetic energy

heart beating is an example of what energy

kinetic

sled positioned on ar top of hill is an example of what energy

potential

I identify reactants, ezyeme, and products: 2H₂O₂ —Catalase—> 2H₂O₂ + O₂

reactants: 2H₂O₂ (hydrogen peroxide)

enzyme: Catalase

Product: 2H₂O₂ + O₂ (oxygen)

I identify reactants, ezyeme, and products: CO₂+ H₂O — carbonic anahydrase—> H₂CO₃

Reactants: CO₂+ H₂O (carbon dioxide)

Enzyme: CO₂+ H₂O — carbonic anahydrase

Product: H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid)