6. Non- experimental mathods

What are non-experimental methods in psychology?

Research methods that do not manipulate an independent variable, such as observations, self-reports, correlations, and case studies.

Why are observations, questionnaires, interviews, correlations, and case studies called non-experimental methods?

Because the researcher does not manipulate variables or establish cause and effect.

What is an observation?

A research method where behaviour is watched and recorded.

What is a controlled observation?

An observation carried out in a controlled environment where variables can be managed.

What is a naturalistic observation?

An observation conducted in a natural environment where behaviour is studied as it normally occurs.

One strength of naturalistic observation.

High ecological validity because behaviour is natural.

One limitation of naturalistic observation.

Lack of control over extraneous variables.

What is a participant observation?

An observation where the researcher joins in with the group being studied.

What is a non-participant observation?

An observation where the researcher does not join in with the group being studied.

One strength of participant observation.

Greater insight into participants’ behaviour.

One limitation of participant observation.

Risk of researcher bias and loss of objectivity.

What is an overt observation?

Participants know they are being observed.

What is a covert observation?

Participants do not know they are being observed.

One strength of covert observation.

Reduces demand characteristics.

One limitation of covert observation.

Ethical issues such as lack of informed consent.

What is a structured observation?

An observation where predefined behavioural categories are used.

What is an unstructured observation?

An observation where all behaviour is recorded without predefined categories.

One strength of structured observation.

Data is easier to analyse and more reliable.

One limitation of structured observation.

Important behaviours may be missed.

What is a behavioural category?

A clearly defined, observable behaviour that is recorded in an observation.

What is a behavioural checklist?

A list of behavioural categories used to record behaviour.

One strength of behavioural categories.

Improves objectivity and reliability.

One limitation of behavioural categories.

May oversimplify complex behaviour.

What is continuous recording?

Recording all instances of behaviour throughout the observation.

One strength of continuous recording.

Produces detailed data.

One limitation of continuous recording.

Time-consuming and difficult with multiple behaviours.

What is time sampling?

Recording behaviour at fixed time intervals.

One strength of time sampling.

Easier to manage large amounts of behaviour.

One limitation of time sampling.

Behaviour outside the intervals may be missed.

What is event sampling?

Recording every occurrence of a specific behaviour.

One strength of event sampling.

Useful for infrequent behaviours.

One limitation of event sampling.

Other important behaviours may be ignored.

What is observer bias?

When the observer interprets behaviour according to their expectations.

What is inter-observer reliability?

The degree to which different observers record the same behaviour consistently.

How is inter-observer reliability tested?

By comparing observations from two or more observers and calculating agreement.

Why is inter-observer reliability important?

It shows the observations are reliable and objective.

What are self-report techniques?

Methods where participants report their own thoughts or behaviour, such as questionnaires and interviews.

Why are questionnaires and interviews called self-report methods?

Because participants provide information about themselves.

What is a questionnaire?

A set of written questions used to collect data from participants.

Give a strength of a questionnaire

Efficient - it is easy to collect large amounts of data

Replicable - easy to replicate making them reliable for research

Give a limitation of a questionnaire

Social desirability - participants may input false answers to seem more socially accepted.

Ambiguity - poorly worded questions can lead to unclear responses making it difficult to analyse data

What is a closed question?

A question with fixed response options.

One strength of closed questions.

Data is easy to analyse and compare.

One limitation of closed questions.

Lacks detail and depth.

What is an open question?

A question that allows participants to answer in their own words.

One strength of open questions.

Produces rich, detailed data.

One limitation of open questions.

Data is difficult to analyse and time-consuming.

What is a Likert scale question?

A scale where participants indicate agreement on a range (e.g. strongly agree to strongly disagree).

Give an example of a Likert scale question.

“I enjoy studying psychology” rated from 1–5.

What is a rating scale question?

A scale where participants rate something numerically.

Give an example of a rating scale question.

Rating stress from 1 to 10.

What is a fixed-choice option question?

A question where participants select one option from a list.

What is an interview?

A verbal method of questioning participants to collect data.

What is a structured interview?

An interview with fixed questions asked in the same order.

One strength of structured interviews.

High reliability.

One limitation of structured interviews.

Limited depth of responses.

What is an unstructured interview?

An interview with open-ended, flexible questions.

One strength of unstructured interviews.

Rich, detailed data.

One limitation of unstructured interviews.

Low reliability and interviewer bias.

What is a semi-structured interview?

a type of interview where the interviewer has a list of prepared questions but can also ask follow - up questions based on the respondent's answers

What is interviewer bias?

When the interviewer unintentionally influences responses.

How can interviewer bias be reduced?

By using standardised instructions.

What is a correlation?

A relationship between two variables that are both measured.

What are co-variables?

The two measured variables in a correlation.

What is a positive correlation?

When both variables increase or decrease together.

What is a negative correlation?

When one variable increases as the other decreases.

What is zero correlation?

No relationship between variables.

What is a correlation coefficient?

A number between -1 and +1 showing the strength and direction of a correlation.

What does +1 mean?

A perfect positive correlation.

What does -1 mean?

A perfect negative correlation.

What does 0 mean?

No correlation.

What is an intervening variable?

A third variable that explains the relationship between the two co-variables.

Why do correlations not show cause and effect?

Because intervening variables may be responsible.

One strength of correlations.

Useful when variables cannot be manipulated.

One limitation of correlations.

Cannot establish cause and effect.

What is a case study?

An in-depth investigation of one individual or small group.

When are case studies useful?

When studying rare or unusual behaviours.

What types of data do case studies usually collect?

Qualitative data, often from interviews, observations, and documents.

One strength of case studies.

Rich, detailed data.

One limitation of case studies.

Low generalisability.

Do case studies have good ecological validity?

Yes, because behaviour is studied in real-life contexts.

Are case studies replicable?

No, because they are unique and lack standardisation.

Why are case studies important in psychology?

They provide valuable insights and generate new research ideas.

What other research methods can/do case studies use? What type of data does this normally result in?

They also use surveys - these are used to gather quantitative data from a sample of individuals or groups