ALL UNITS - AP Psychology - Myers

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 14, 754)

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 754)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 754)

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 756)

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 756)

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 756)

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 757)

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 503, 758)

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 759)

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 763)

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 764)

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 764)

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 771)

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 773)

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 773)

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 774)

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 775)

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 65, 776)

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 777)

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 780)

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 780)

discrimination

(2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 780)

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

ingroup

"Us"—people with whom we share a common identity. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

outgroup

"Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 784)

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 785)

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. (Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 786)

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 501, 789)

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 791)

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 792)

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 798)

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 803)

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 803)

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 804)

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 804)

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 807)

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 808)

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 809)

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 809)

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 810)

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 810)

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 810)

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 812)

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 812)

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 813)

GRIT Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction

a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 815)

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 003)

structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)

functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 004)

experimental psychology

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 005)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 006, 266)

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 006)

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 007, 119)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 007)

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 009)

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 010, 135)

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 011)

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)

cognitive psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 135)

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 012)

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 013)

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 462)

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

personality psychology

the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 754)

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)

human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 014, 828)

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 014)

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 015, 590)

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 015)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 016, 324)

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 016)

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 031)

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 035)

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 038)

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 039)

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 040)

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 042)

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 043)

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 046)

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 050)

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 051)