Archaeology 140 - Midterm

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96 Terms

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4 Disciplines of Anthropology

  1. Archaeology

  2. Cultural Anthropology

  3. Biomedical Anthropology

  4. Linguistic Anthropology

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John Ray

  • reproductively isolated concept of species

    • young that can reproduce are of the same species

  • Ray’s Taxonomy:

    • Genus

    • Species

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Carolus Linnaeus

  • standardized Ray’s classification using binomial nomenclature

  • classified humans as homo sapiens

  • Linnaeus’s Taxonomy:

    • Class

    • Order

    • Genus

    • Species

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George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

  • comparative anatomy

  • organisms change in response to environmental stimuli

    • “centre of origin”

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Erasmus Darwin

  • warm blooded animals arose from a common ancestor

  • diversity of life arose from minute organisms living in mud

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Jean-Baptise Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lemarck

  • “use-disuse theory”

    • Lemarckism

    • certain parts of the body being used eventually strengthens it

    • animals lose or gain attributes depending on how much something is used

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Baron George Cuvier

  • “Father of Paleontology”

  • established the idea of extinction

  • catastrophism

    • explains the possibility of animals living at the same time but dying out suddenly

  • Cuvier’s Taxonomy:

    • Phylum

    • Class

    • Order

    • Genus

    • Species

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James Hutton

  • “Father of modern geology”

  • uniformitarianism

    • changes in the Earth’s crust during geological time were a result of continuous and uniform processes

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Sir Charles Lyell (Darwin’s influencers)

  • theory of geologic/deep time

  • realized that the world was much older than previously theorized

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Thomas R. Malthus

  • “carrying capacity”

  • populations tend to increase faster than food resources

  • Principles of Population:

    1. more offspring are born than survive to adulthood

    2. constant competition for resources

    3. biological diversity/variation among individuals

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Darwin

  • “artificial selection”

    • animal breeders select desirable traits in parent animals to produce offspring with both desirable traits

    • also removing animals with undesirable traits from the breeding pool

  • read Malthus’s work

    • realized some individuals must compete with others to survive

    • some individuals had traits that allowed for better survival

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Transmutation/Evolution

change of one species to another

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Biogeography

distribution of species through space and time

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Adaptive Radiation

many species emerging from one/a few ancient one(s)

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Natural Selection

the process of biological change in a species in which adaptive radiation occurs

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Wallace

  • discovered the difference in animals in Asia and Oceania

    • “Wallace Line” - geographical faunal boundary

    • discovered the transmutation of species under environmental influences

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8 Key Elements of Natural Selection

  1. all species produce offspring at a faster rate than food supplies can increase

  2. biological variation within all species

  3. rule of competition

    • more individuals are produced than can survive in each generation

  4. individuals with favourable traits have a reproductive advantage

    • fitness

  5. selective pressure where the environment determines if a trait is beneficial

  6. reproductive success where traits are inherited and passed on to the next generation

  7. favourable variations accumulate over a long time

  8. speciation where trait variation and geographic isolation can lead to a new species

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DNA Structure

  • made up of phosphate and sugar molecule

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4 Nucleotide Bases in DNA

  1. adenine

  2. thymine

  3. guanine

  4. cytosine

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Adenine & Thymine

  • always bond together

  • has 2 hydrogen bonds

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Guanine & Cytosine

  • always bind together

  • has 3 hydrogen bonds

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Chromatin

DNA in a resting state with no replication occurring

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Ancestral Traits

shared through common ancestry

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Homologies

similar traits because of descent from a common ancestor

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Derived Traits

significant modifications from ancestral conditions

  • creates new forms due to mutation

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Primate Traits

  1. 5 digits on hands and feet (pentadactyly)

  2. opposable thumb

  3. nails on fingers

  4. tactile pads

  5. heterodont

  6. stereoscopic vision

  7. forward facing eyes

  8. larger body and complex brains

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<p>Strepsirrhini</p>

Strepsirrhini

split into 2 infraorders

  • lorisiformes

  • lemuriformes

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<p>Lorisiformes </p>

Lorisiformes

  • Superfamily: Lorisoidea

  • lorises found in asia

  • pottos and galagos found in africa

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<p>Lemuriformes</p>

Lemuriformes

  • Superfamily: lemuroidea

  • lemurs found in madagascar

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Strepsirhini Ancestral Traits

  • long snout

  • wet nose

  • eye shine (tapetum lucidum)

  • synthesizes own vitamin C

  • post orbital bar

  • short gestation and maturation period

  • small bodied

  • 2:1:3:3 dental formula

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Strepsirhini Derived Traits

  • grooming claw

  • tooth comb

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<p>Haplorrhini</p>

Haplorrhini

split into 2 infraorders

  • tarsiiformes

  • simiiformes

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Haplorrhini Ancestral Traits

  • full postorbital closure/plate

  • fovea (depression area behind the retina allowing them to see things very close up in great detail)

  • dry nose (no rhinarium)

  • shorter snouts

  • no eye shine (tapetum lucidum)

  • larger brains relative to their body size

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<p>Tarsiformes</p>

Tarsiformes

  • tarsius

    • tarsiers in asia

  • 2:1:3:3 dental formula on the maxilla

  • 1:1:3:3 dental formula on the mandible

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<p>Simiiformes Traits</p>

Simiiformes Traits

  • monkeys and apes

  • trichromatic colour vision

  • larger body and brain size

  • postorbital plate

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Simiiformes Parvorders

further split into 2 parvorders

  • platyrrhini

  • catarrhini

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<p>Platyrrhini</p>

Platyrrhini

  • Superfamily: Ceboidea

  • New World Monkeys

  • tropical forest environments

  • Mexico, Central and South America

  • highly arboreal

  • flat noses with outward-facing nostrils

  • 2:1:3:3 dental formula

    Marmosets & Tamarins

  • smallest primates

  • twin births

  • female sexual dimorphism (females are larger)

  • 2:1:3:2 dental formula

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<p>Catarrhini</p>

Catarrhini

  • Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea

  • Old World Monkeys

  • Africa, Asia

  • downward facing nostrils that are close together

  • no prehensile tails

  • terrestrial and arboreal

  • 2:1:2:3 dental formula

  • sexually dimorphic

  • bilophodont molars (4 points that are lined up)

  • ischial callosities (flattened pelvic bones which act as a seat pad)

    Superfamily: Hominoidea

  • long arms for brachiation

  • no tail

  • increased period of infant dependency

  • Y-5 molars (5 points that do not line up)

  • shortened torso

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Forces of Evolution

  1. Mutation

  2. Gene flow

  3. Genetic drift

  4. Natural selection

  5. Sexual selection

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Mutation

  • mutations that result in some form of change in protein synthesis

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Substitution error (point mutation)

one nucleotide is replaced for another creating a new amino acid

  • has a single alteration in a polypeptide chain

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Insertion (mutation)

an addition of a nucleotide that wasn’t there previously

  • entire polypeptide chain after the insertion is changed

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Deletion (mutation)

a nucleotide is knocked out by the enzyme travelling up the genetic strand

  • the entire polypeptide chain is altered after the deletion

  • can lead to new variants

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Sympatric speciation

mutations in chromosome formation (genetic rearrangements) which create pre-mating mechanisms of isolation

when a population splits into two or more separate species while remaining located together without a physical barrier

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Pre-mating mechanisms of isolation

the impossibility of organisms to breed if there is a chromosomal mismatch

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Gene flow

movement of alleles from one population to another

  • synonymous with migration

  • gene flow creates hybrids

  • increases genetic variation

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Parapatric Speciation

a new species is created due to periods of reproductive isolation and unequal gene flow

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Heterosis/ Hybrid vigor

when the offspring of hybrid organisms have a physical/genetic advantage over their parents

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Genetic drift

random changes in allele frequencies from one generation to the next

  • genes remain constant whilst alleles change

  • reduces genetic variation

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Allopatric speciation

speciation caused by long term geographic isolation

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Population Bottleneck

a type of genetic drift that occurs when the number of individuals in a population drops dramatically due to a random event

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Founder effect

a type of genetic drift that occurs when members of a population leave the main group and form a new population that no longer mates with members of the original group

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Natural selection

an evolutionary process where certain phenotypes give way to an advantage/disadvantage in survival and reproductive success

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Stabilizing selection (natural selection)

the average phenotype has an adaptive advantage over extreme phenotypic forms

  • favours generalised traits

  • stabilising selection can be a result of rapidly changing environments

    • allows for an individual to be successful despite the everchanging environment

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Directional selection (natural selection)

one form of a phenotype is favoured at the expense of other forms

  • favours one particular phenotype at the expense of another

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Diversifying selection (natural selection)

less common phenotypes are favoured at the expense of more frequent phenotypes

  • favours extreme types of adaptation given the environment the individual is living in

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Reproductive stress

the ability to successfully breed and raise offspring

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Sexual selection

selective pressure specifically affects reproductive stress rather than survival

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Male competition (sexual selection)

traits that males have gives them a reproductive advantage over other males (only works in harem situations)

  • successful males mate with multiple females to ensure the next generation inherit advantageous traits

    • creates secondary sex characteristics

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Secondary sex characteristics

phenotypes that develop during adolescence

  • bodies, capes of fur, canines, horns

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Female choice (sexual selection)

selecting the most desirable traits in males both behavioural and phenotypical

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Runaway sexual selection

females select a specific trait over and over during mating

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Honest signalling

traits that seem maladaptive in males signal their survivability to females

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Microevolution

changes in allele frequencies within breeding populations

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Macroevolution

similarities and differences between species leads to changes that result in new species

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Modern Synthesis

integration of Darwin’s, Mendel’s and subsequent research into a unified theory of evolution

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Population

a group of individuals that are genetically and geographically close enough that they can breed and produce offspring

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Homologous chromosome

identical genetic information from each parent

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Mitosis

division of somatic cells

  • muscles, nerves, blood, tissue cells

  • considered as diploid

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Meiosis

division of reproductive cells

  • ova, sperm

  • considered as haploid

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Monosomy

one gamete that is missing genetic information

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Trisomy

one gamete with an extra copy of chromatid

  • down syndrome

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RNA

ribose sugar molecule

  • binds uracil with adenine

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mRNA

messenger RNA

  • nucleus

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tRNA

transfer RNA

  • cytoplasm

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rRNA

ribosomal RNA

  • ribosomes

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Amino acids

20 total

11 produced by cells

9 obtained by food (essential amino acids)

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Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

  1. principle of segregation

  2. principle of independent assortment

  3. principle of dominance

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Principle of Segregation

alleles from each gene segregate from each other

  • each gamete carries only one allele for each gene

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Principle of Independent Assortment

alleles for distinct traits are located at specific loci on the chromosome and are inherited independantly

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Principle of Dominance

2 types of alleles

  • dominant

  • recessive

  • dominant alleles always mask recessive alleles

    • only true in Mendelian traits

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Mendelian Genetics

phenotypic traits controlled by a single gene

  • you either have them or you dont

    • dimples, attached earlobes, widows peak etc

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Heterozygous

2 different alleles for the same gene

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Homozygous

2 identical alleles

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Continuous Traits

governed by alleles at two or more loci

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Polytypic

multiple phenotypic forms generated

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Pleiotropic traits

one gene affects multiple phenotypic traits

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Exogamous breeding

exchanging genes between populations that can introduce new alleles to a population

  • skin/hair colour

  • stature

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Endogamous breeding

breeding within a population

  • can be a result of a genetic bottleneck or founder effect

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Epigenetics

changes in organisms caused by modifications to gene expression from environmental/behavioural stressors

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Analogies

similarities based on common function with no common evolutionary descent

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Homoplasy

shared forms arising independently

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Convergent evolution

independent development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms

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Cladistics

evolutionary interpretations based on environmental adaptation and analysis of specific types of derived traits

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Anagenesis (Macroevolution)

one species changes over time into a new species gradually

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Cladogenesis (Macroevolution)

new species arising from a splitting event