AP Psych Vocab

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe that a past event was more predictable than it actually was.

Overconfidence bias

the tendency for a person's subjective confidence in their judgments to be reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments.

Conformation bias

the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories.

Evolutionary perspective 

a psychological approach that seeks to understand human behavior by examining how it has been shaped by natural selection and adaptation over time

Biological Perspective

views behavior, thoughts, and emotions as products of physiological factors like genetics, brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones

Psychodynamic Perspective

emphasizes the role of unconscious thoughts, impulses, and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior

Behavioral Perspective

defines behavior as learned through environmental interactions, focusing on observable actions and the influence of stimuli, reinforcement, and punishment

Humanistic Perspective

emphasizes free will, personal growth, and the innate drive for self-actualization

Cognitive Perspective

focuses on internal mental processes like thinking, memory, problem-solving, and perception to understand behavior

Socio-cultural perspective

defines human behavior as a product of interactions between social and cultural factors, such as societal norms, values, family, friends, ethnicity, and religion

Theory

a well-substantiated explanation for why certain behaviors or phenomena occur

Hypotheses

a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between variables in a study

Falsifiable

a hypothesis or statement that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation

Replication

the process of repeating a research study to verify its findings and ensure they are reliable and generalizable

Peer Review

when other experts in the field (peers) evaluate a research article or paper to ensure its quality, validity, and credibility before publication.

Case Study 

an in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, group, event, or community to understand behaviors

Naturalistic Observation

a research method where a researcher observes and records behavior in its natural, real-world setting without any manipulation or intervention from the researcher.

Meta-Analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the quantitative results from multiple individual studies that investigate the same research question to draw a more reliable and overall conclusion about the relationship between variables or the effectiveness of an intervention.

Correlational Studies

a non-experimental research method that observes or measures the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are related

Random Sample 

the method of selecting participants for a study such that every member of the larger population has an equal chance of being included in the sample

Convenience Sample

a non-probability sampling method where participants are selected for a study because they are readily available and easy to access such as in a class to participate

Representative Sample

a group of participants selected from a larger population that accurately reflects the characteristics and diversity of that entire population.

Independent Variable 

the factor or condition that a researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment to observe its effect on another variable

Dependent Variable

the outcome or effect being measured in an experiment, which researchers expect to change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable

Confounding Variable

an external factor that influences both the independent variable and the dependent variable in a study

Third Variable

an unmeasured, extraneous variable that provides an alternative explanation for a correlation between two observed variables

Operational Definition

a precise statement of the procedures used to define and measure a research variable, outlining exactly how it will be observed, measured, or manipulated in a study

Random Assignment

a method for placing participants into different experimental groups to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being in any group

Control group

a group of participants in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment or intervention

Experimental Group

the group of participants in a study that receives the treatment or the independent variable being tested

Placebo

a fake, inactive treatment used in experiments to see if a real treatment works

Placebo Effect

the phenomenon where a person experiences real physical or psychological improvement after receiving an inactive substance or treatment, purely due to their belief that the treatment is effective

Single Blind 

the participants are unaware of which experimental condition or treatment they are receiving, while the researchers know which group the participants are in

Double Blind

a research method where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the experimental treatment or the placebo

Quantitative

a research method that collects numerical data through structured approaches like experiments and surveys

Qualitative

a method that focuses on understanding human experiences and behaviors through non-numerical data like words and observations

Generalizability

the extent to which the results of a research study can be applied to a larger, broader population or different settings beyond the original sample.

Institutional Review Board 

an administrative body that reviews research involving human subjects to ensure it is ethical and protects participants' rights and welfare

Consent/Ascent 

consent is an adult's informed, voluntary agreement to participate in a study or treatment, while assent is the agreement of a minor or person unable to give legal consent to participate, usually after a parent or guardian provides their consent

Debrief

the post-experiment process where researchers provide participants with a full explanation of the study's true purpose, any deception used, and the results

Confidentiality

the ethical principle of protecting and securing sensitive personal information and data shared by research participants or clients, ensuring it is not disclosed without their expressed consent