Introduction to Crime and Deviance: Definitions, Theories, and Measurement

What is a crime?

Behavior in violation of the criminal law, defined as a body of specific rules regarding human conduct promulgated by political authority.

What do Sutherland and Cressey (1970) say about crime?

They define crime as behavior in violation of the criminal law, which applies uniformly to all members of society.

What are some problems with law enforcement?

Issues include who they police, crime control and surveillance, evidence and witnesses, and crime statistics attrition.

How does personal bias affect the application of law?

Penalties are not applied equally; certain groups may be more likely to commit crimes but not necessarily more likely to be arrested.

What does Becker (1963) say about deviance?

Social groups create deviance by making rules and applying them to individuals, labeling them as outsiders.

What is the 'deviancy amplification spiral'?

A process where negative social reactions escalate, isolating 'deviants' and making them more criminally oriented.

What are the two main camps explaining crime?

1. Structural explanations (e.g., biology, families, cultures) and 2. Agency explanations (e.g., benefits outweighing costs).

How does environment influence crime?

While some crimes may be linked to biology, many are influenced by environmental factors, such as social situations and desperation.

What do criminologists suggest about crime prevention?

They advocate for addressing the causes of crime rather than focusing solely on harsher sentences or punitive measures.

What is criminology?

The study of crime, criminals, and the criminal justice system, shaped by various disciplines including sociology, psychology, and law.

What is the significance of criminology's disciplinary hybridity?

It allows criminology to draw insights from multiple fields, enriching its understanding of crime and deviance.

How do laws vary in criminology?

Laws are relative and historically shaped, varying from time to time and place to place.

What does Peter Berger (1963) state about sociology?

He emphasizes that things are not what they seem, urging a critical examination of 'common-sense' discussions about crime.

How is crime defined sociologically?

Crime is a social construct that varies across time, place, and people, influenced by social processes.

What factors shape crime control and punishment?

Social influences determine the seriousness of acts defined as criminal and the priority given to addressing them.

What role do social divisions play in crime?

Factors such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and age significantly influence crime and control dynamics.

What demographic changes have impacted crime rates?

Urbanization and population growth have led to increased crime, as crime becomes more impersonal.

What is the impact of individualism vs collectivism on crime?

Post-colonial influences and the rise of larger businesses can lead to societal changes that affect crime rates.

What challenges arise from the industrial revolution regarding crime?

It creates winners and losers, leading to poverty and potentially increased crime rates due to rapid societal changes.

How does the police's relationship with the community affect crime?

As police become less familiar with the community, trials may become more difficult but less biased.

What societal changes increased the likelihood of becoming a victim of crime?

The simultaneous rise in wealth and poverty.

What is a deterrent in the context of crime?

A measure intended to discourage criminal behavior on personal and societal levels.

Name an ancient form of punishment used to deter crime.

Pillory, gibbeting, flaying, or slow slicing.

What was the significance of the death penalty in historical contexts?

It was often a show of power by those in charge and was seen as gratifying or vengeful.

When was the death penalty abolished in the UK?

1965 in Great Britain, 1973 in Northern Ireland, and 1964 in the Republic of Ireland.

Who was Joan of Arc and what happened to her?

She was a famous saint who was burned for heresy.

What key aspects characterized crime and punishment in the 18th and 19th centuries?

Controlling crime, evolving crime types, emerging justice profiles, and fear of crime.

What new types of criminals emerged during the Victorian era?

Trimmers, gonophs, footpads, magsmen, shofulmen, and swell mobs.

How did the perception of criminals change during the Victorian era?

Criminals began to be seen as celebrities, exemplified by the infamous case of Jack the Ripper.

What was the impact of urbanization on crime during the Victorian era?

The emergence of slum houses provided conditions for crime to thrive.

What invention was created during the Victorian era to aid police work?

The police whistle.

What was the relationship between wealth and prison conditions in the Victorian era?

Wealthy prisoners could pay for better conditions or for someone to serve their sentence.

What was the Crank in Victorian prisons?

A device used for pointless labor as part of the prison experience.

What was the last execution in the UK and its significance?

Liam Holden was sentenced to hang, but his conviction was quashed in 2012.

What is the 'dark figure' of crime?

Crimes that go unreported or unrecorded, leading to an underestimation of crime levels.

Who was the first to collect national statistics on crime?

Adolphe Quetelet in France in 1826/7.

What is the 'three R's' process in crime statistics?

Recognizing, reporting, and recording crime.

What are some reasons for crime attrition?

Victim unawareness, fear of involvement, perceived triviality, and distrust in authorities.

What types of crime are commonly recorded?

Theft, burglary, criminal damage, violence against the person, sexual offences, robbery, fraud, and drug offences.

What are 'hidden' interpersonal violence types?

Domestic violence, bullying, and sexual harassment.

How do victimization surveys help in understanding crime?

They capture unreported crimes and provide a subjective perspective on crime experiences.

What is the significance of the BCS survey in crime statistics?

It started in 1981 and is now part of official statistics for England and Wales.

What is the impact of broken windows theory on crime?

It suggests that visible signs of disorder can lead to increased crime rates.

What was the role of the Chicago School in criminology?

They influenced environmental criminology by linking crime to social and physical environments.

What does the term 'Victorian underworld' refer to?

The emerging criminal subculture and the fear surrounding it during the Victorian era.

How did the media influence public perception of crime in the Victorian era?

Crime was sensationalized, leading to heightened fears and public interest.

What does the term 'dark figure' of crime refer to?

The dark figure of crime refers to the amount of unreported or undiscovered crime.

Why are crime statistics often criticized?

Crime statistics are criticized for being inaccurate and subject to biases in reporting and recording.

What is the significance of the 'grey figure' in crime statistics?

The grey figure represents the disparity between reported crime and the actual number of crimes recorded by the police.

What is the role of local crime surveys?

Local crime surveys focus on community-based issues and localized crime, providing insights into specific areas.

How do offender self-report studies contribute to understanding crime?

Offender self-report studies are anonymous, which can encourage honesty, but may also lead to exaggeration.

What was the impact of the 2012 summer riots in London on police resource allocation?

Misrecording of crime statistics led to misallocation of police resources, leaving the Metropolitan Police ill-prepared for the riots.

What are the five uses of crime statistics suggested by the 2006 Statistics Commission review?

1. Assessing police performance, 2. Understanding policy development, 3. Understanding causes of crime, 4. Determining personal risk, 5. Informing the public of criminal activity.

What is the realist view of official crime statistics?

The realist view sees official crime statistics as indicators of the state of crime in society.

What do constructivists argue regarding official crime statistics?

Constructivists argue that official statistics must be understood in the context of how the agencies responsible for them operate.

What is the positivist perspective on crime statistics?

Positivists believe that crime statistics can serve as an objective measure of the state of crime in society.

What challenges arise in measuring crime through surveys?

Challenges include memory decay, underreporting, and biases in who reports crimes.

How does societal change impact the use of crime statistics?

Societal changes, such as the information society and decline of trust in authority, affect the availability and interpretation of crime statistics.

What is the crime incidence rate?

The crime incidence rate is the product of crime prevalence rate and crime concentration rate.

What is the relationship between crime statistics and the police's performance measures?

Government sets police targets for crime reduction, leading to the use of crime statistics as a measure of police performance.

What does the term 'clear-up rate' refer to?

The clear-up rate refers to the proportion of recorded crimes that are detected or otherwise resolved.

What is the impact of police recording practices on crime statistics?

Police recording practices can manipulate statistics, leading to criticisms of their accuracy.

How does the concept of crime-flux relate to crime statistics?

Crime-flux suggests that crime rates can be broken down into distinct statistics that combine to give an overall picture.

What are the implications of biases in police-recorded crime statistics?

Biases can lead to misinterpretation of crime rates and affect public perception and policy decisions.

What is the College of Policing's role?

The College of Policing serves as the professional body for the police in England and Wales.

What does the term 'moral panic' refer to in the context of crime statistics?

Moral panic refers to the widespread fear or concern about crime, often fueled by selective reporting of statistics.

What is the importance of understanding the social processes behind crime statistics?

Understanding these processes helps to reveal the relationship between deviance and its regulation.

What is the British Crime Survey (BCS)?

The BCS is a survey that collects data on people's crime victimization experiences, including unreported crimes.

How do biases in reporting affect different demographic groups?

Certain groups, such as young members of Black and Ethnic Minority communities, may face discriminatory reporting practices.

What is the significance of the '13/50' statistic in crime discussions?

The '13/50' statistic is a politicized figure often discussed on social media, reflecting complex underlying issues.

What is the role of the College of Policing?

To serve as the professional body for the police in England and Wales, responsible for policy and practice development.

What are the seven core principles developed by the Committee on Standards in Public Life (CSPL)?

Accountability, honesty, integrity, leadership, objectivity, openness, and selflessness.

What additional principles does the Code of Ethics for police include?

Fairness and respect.

What is a core requirement under the 'Honesty and Integrity' principle?

Police officers must not knowingly make false, misleading, or inaccurate entries in any record or document.

What obligation do police officers have regarding improper conduct?

They have a positive obligation to report, challenge, or take action against conduct that falls below the Standard of Professional Behaviour.

What was revealed by the Independent Police Complaints Commission's report on the Southwark Sapphire Unit?

The unit was pressured to meet performance targets, leading to inappropriate encouragement of victims to retract allegations.

How did misrecording of crime affect the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS)?

It led to misallocation of resources, leaving the MPS ill-prepared for events like the summer riots in London in 2012.

What is meant by 'crime knowledge' in the context of media representations?

The information produced and disseminated by the media regarding crime, including its prevalence, types, and societal impacts.

How does the media influence public fear of crime?

By selectively reporting on certain crimes, often sensationalizing them, which can distort public perception of crime rates and risks.

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative studies of media portrayals of crime?

Quantitative studies assess the extent of media reflection of real-world crime, while qualitative studies explore the reasons behind specific media portrayals.

What is the significance of the media's role in creating cultural stereotypes?

The media can reinforce or challenge societal imbalances and stereotypes regarding crime and victimhood.

What is a 'moral panic'?

A widespread feeling of fear and concern about a potential or imagined threat, often directed at specific groups labeled as 'folk devils'.

What are the characteristics of a moral panic?

Concern about a threat, hostility towards actors embodying the problem, and a belief that responsible agencies are naïve.

What factors determine what is considered 'newsworthy'?

Immediacy, dramatization, personalization, simplification, titillation, conventionalism, structured access, and novelty.

How does media representation serve as a form of social control?

By manufacturing consent around elite ideas that serve the national interest, often at the expense of marginalized voices.

What is the liberal/pluralist view of media's role?

That media empowers citizens by providing information to hold political elites accountable.

What is the critique of critical theories regarding media?

They may be too grand and overlook the complexities of media as an organization with professionals creating 'crime knowledge'.

What does the term 'known to the police' imply in media reporting?

It suggests a reliance on police narratives, which may not reflect the broader community context and can skew public perception.

How does media coverage differ between the US and Canada regarding crime?

US media tends to generate a climate of fear around crime, particularly mass shootings, despite similar gun ownership rates.

What percentage of news media content focuses on crime?

Estimates vary from 4% to 13%.

What is the significance of the Hillsborough disaster in media representation?

Media coverage, particularly by The Sun, framed the tragedy in a way that blamed fans for the disaster.

What is the portrayal of serial killers in media reporting?

Media often focuses on methods rather than motives, contributing to sensationalism.

What does Cohen's concept of 'folk devils' refer to?

Individuals or groups that are scapegoated for wider societal issues, often during moral panics.

What is the impact of sensational crime reporting on public perception?

It can lead to exaggerated fears and misperceptions about the prevalence and nature of crime.

What is the role of social media in contemporary political campaigns?

It allows for direct engagement with the public and can amplify populist messages, as seen in recent elections.

What is consensus in the context of crime and media?

A widespread agreement that 'something should be done' regarding crime issues.

Define disproportionality in media reporting.

An exaggeration of the number or strength of crime cases reported.

What does volatility refer to in crime-related media?

The sudden eruption and dissipation of panic regarding crime.

According to Cohen (2011), what topics are central to moral panics?

Immigration, migrants, multicultural absorption, refugees, border controls, and asylum seekers.

What are signal crimes?

Events that impact a wider audience beyond immediate participants, signaling societal issues.