psych unit 3 aos 2 SAC

Behaviourist approaches to learning

Classical and operant conditioning

Classical conditioning

Form of learning that occurs through repeated association of two stimuli. Learning is said to have occurred when a stimulus produces a response when it did not previously do so

3 stages classical conditioning

Before conditioning

• Involves a response to a stimulus that hasn’t been conditioned . Natural and automatic

• This is explained as UCS results in UCR

• There is also NS that causes no response

During conditioning

• Involves the development of an association between NS and UCS

• Causes NS to become CS

After conditioning

• Results in the now CS producing a CR as a result of its association with the UCS

Elements of classical conditioning

• Neutral stimulus(NS)- Associated with UCS so that it produces a response. Doesn’t initially produce a response

• Unconditioned stimulus(UCS)- Consistently produces a naturally occurring automatic response. Elicits UCR

• Unconditioned response(UCR)- Occurs automatically when UCS is presented

• Conditioned stimulus(CS)- Neutral at the start of conditioning and doesn’t normally produce UCR. Through repeated association with UCS, CS triggers similar response to that caused by UCS

• Conditioned response(CR)- learned and produced by CS. Occurs afterCS has been associated with UCS

Classical conditioning model

In before conditioning, NS leads to no relevant response.
In during conditioning, NS immediately followed by the UCS leads to the UCR over repeated trials
In after conditioning, CS leads to CR

Operant conditioning

Response that acts on the environment to produce a desired consequence. Voluntary behaviour

Operant conditioning three phase model

Antecedent: what happens before- environmental stimulus that precedes the relevant behaviour and indicates the consequences
Behaviour: what happens- voluntary response to antecedent
Consequence: what happens after- event that occurs after behaviour and determines wether the behaviour is likely to continue. Can be a reinforcer or punisher

Elements of operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment)

Reinforcer- stimulus that strengthens likelihood of a response

• Positive reinforcement- occurs when a pleasant stimulus is provided

• Negative reinforcement- occurs when unpleasant stimulus is removed

Punisher- stimulus that weakens likelihood of a response

• Positive punishment- occurs when unpleasant stimulus is provided

• Negative reinforcement- occurs when pleasant stimulus is removed

Observational learning

• Means of acquiring social learning

• Children develop attitudes by observing those expressed by others who are important to them

Principles of observational learning

• Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours

• Learning can occur without immediate change in behaviour

• Cognition plays a role in this learning. Expectation of future reward or punishment can influence behaviour

Process of observational learning

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement

Attention

Learning through observation by actively watching the models behaviour and consequences
Attention may be influenced by:
-Perceptual abilities of observer
-Motivation and interest level
-Situation being observed
-Distractions
-Characteristics of model
-Importance and distinctiveness of behaviour
-Effect it may have on us

Retention

-Once model is observed, models behaviour must be remembered

• Need to store memory

• Making mental representation meaningful= accurate behaviour replication

Reproduction

-Imitating what we have observed

• Must have ability to reproduce act

• Must be able to develop necessary skills to imitate the behaviour

Motivation

-Must be motivated to perform the behaviour

-Learners will perform act only with motivation/reason to do so

Reinforcement

-If modelled behaviour or imitated behaviour is reinforced(rewarded/recognised) it results in increased motivation or increase in the likelihood of repeating behaviour

Memory

Active information processing system that encodes, stores, and retrieves info required by learning

Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory explanatory power(strengths and limitations)

Strengths-

• model proposes that memory is not a single unitary process but rather a system with distinct stores, each with different capacities, durations, and functions

Limitations-

• Model is relatively linear and does not fully capture the complexity of memory processes, such as the role of working memory, which involves active manipulation of information

• Model doesn't fully address how interference from other information can disrupt memory encoding and retrieval

Three fundamental processes required for memory

Incoming sensory info
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

1. Encoding- converting info into a useable form

2. Storage- retain info in our long term memory for later use

   ↓ ↑

3. Retrieval- accessing stored info from long term memory for use. Locating and retrieving so we are consciously aware of it

   *if any of these processes fail, memory will fail

Key features of the three memory stores

Sensory memory

• Entry point of memory where new incoming sensory info is stored for a brief period

• May have an unlimited capacity

• Buffer→ held long enough to be transferred

• Not consciously aware of most info

Short term memory(STM)

-Memory system with limited storage capacity in which info is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed
-Info stored longer then sensory memory
-Info is not an exact replica of the sensory stimulus, but an encoding of one
-Info we are consciously aware of

Short term memory capacity and duration

Capacity-

• 7 pieces of info plus or minus 2

Duration-

• Info retains well for first few secs

• After 12 secs, recall declines

• After 18 secs, almost all info disappears

Long term memory

Memory system that stores vast amounts of info for a long time, sometimes permanently

Long term memory subtypes

Explicit memory(episodic and semantic memory) and implicit memory(procedural and classically conditioned memory)

Explicit memory

-Memory that occurs when info can be consciously retrieved, memory with awareness
-Memory that we describe in words

Semantic-

• General knowledge+facts

Episodic-

• Personal events+experiences

Implicit memory

-Doesn’t require conscious retrieval, without awareness

-Automatic

-Difficult to put into words

Procedural memory-

• Skills for doing things

Classically conditioned memory-

• Conditioned response to stimuli

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating info being remembered over and over again so that it can be retained in STM/working memory

Elaborative rehearsal

Linking new info in a meaningful way with other new info OR info already stored in LTM to aid in its storage and retrieved from LTM

Hippocampus

-Encodes the explicit aspects of memory

-Transfers memory to the neocortex

-Encodes and consolidates STM into LTM

-Personal events+facts+general knowledge

-Consolidates new semantic and episodic memories so that they are neurologically stable and long lasting

Amygdala

-Encoding implicit emotional+fear based memories(aggression)

-Can motivate certain types of behaviour

-Amygdala activated=release of nonadrenaline→ encodes the fear/emotional aspects of memory

-Activates hippocampus

-People with damaged amygdala are unable to acquire a fear response, even if they have formed a conscious explicit memory

Neocortex

• Long term storage of explicit memories→ stored in areas that first processed info

• The motor programming areas of neocortex interact with the basal ganglia+cerebellum to encode, store and retrieve implicit long term memories(e.g. habit formation, fine motor movements)

Basal ganglia

-Encodes and stores implicit and motor memories
-Role in habituation, voluntary motor movement and learning sequences of movement

Cerebellum

-Encodes and stores implicit(procedural) memories relating to motor skills

-Controls coordination and balance

-Forms and stores implicit memories of simple reflexes acquired through classical conditioning

Hippocampus+amygdala

-When emotionally aroused, we form semantic and episodic memories about the situation in which these occur and the hippocampus enables neural representations of this info as explicit memories

• When the memory is retrieved, activity of hippocampus during memory formation enables one to remember such aspects as where the memory happened

• As the amygdala is activated, one also remembers the emotional arousal content and sympathetic nervous system reaction that have been linked to the memory may be initiated. This component is implicit memory

Nonadrenaline+amygdala

Nonadrenaline stimulates amygdala to attach more emotional significance to the experience and signal the hippocampus to encode and ensure long term storage of the relevant emotional details during the memory consolidation process

Mnemonic devices

-Any technique used to assist memory

-They use information that is already stored in LTM by creating a link or association between the new information to be remembered and information previously encoded

How are mnemonics used?

-Mnemonics organize information into a cohesive whole, so that retrieval of part of the information assists with retrieval of the remaining information

-The ease or difficulty with which we learn new information depends not on how much we must learn, but on how well it fits with what we already know, this then makes it easier to retrieve.

-Types of mnemonic devices:

• Acronyms

• Acrostics

• Method of loci

Acronym

-The letters of the acronym act as retrieval cues for the words or phrase to be remembered

-Acronyms are also useful for remembering a sequence of actions

Acrostics

-They involve making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing sequences (or phrases) using the first letters of the information to be remembered.

-The first letter of each word in the sentence then acts as a retrieval cue to assist remembering the inform

-E.g. Never Eat Soggy Weetbixs

Method of loci

-Items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations

-Enhancing retrieval of information to be remembered, and particularly useful when you want to remember a list of items in a particular order

Using the method of loci

-First step:

• Learn in the naturally occurring sequential order some locations that are well known to you. The number of locations in the sequence should correspond with the number of items to be remembered

-Second step:

• Associate the visual image of each item to be remembered with a location in the sequence. This involves creating a mental image of the items to be remembered and visually linking them with a particular location

Within subjects design- pros and cons

Each member of the sample is involved in both the control and experimental conditions.

Pro:

• No participant differences

Con:

• Order effects

Between subjects- pros and cons

Each participant experiences only one condition of the experiment

Pro:

• Cost and time efficient

Con:

• There may be individual participant differences

Mixed subjects and its pros and cons

-Examines differences between groups while also measuring individual changes within those groups over time or across different conditions

Pro:

• Increased Statistical Power

Con:

• Time and effort

Conclusion

Statement that addresses the research question in the context of the research findings

Chunking

• Grouping seperate pieces of info into one or more larger units

• Increases capacity of STM