Psych unit 3

encoding

taking in external stimuli and creating an internal memory

engram

a once-thought place where specific memory was stored (it was thought that each memory had a certain place in the brain)

storage

not a specific place, this is where we’re holding the internal memories

retrieval

taking out a memory from storage and bringing it into your consciousness

structural processing

focusing on the visual components of what you’re trying to remember (uses the OCCIPITAL lobe), creates a SHORT and NOT strong memory

phonemic processing

focusing on the sound of the word to try to remember (uses the TEMPORAL lobe), creates a SHORT and NOT strong memory

semantic

focusing on the meaning of what you’re trying to remember (uses the FRONTAL lobe), deeper processing, and STRONG memory, factual information isn’t tied to the experience of learning the information

organizational

focusing on how different stimuli fit together or with other memories (uses FRONTAL lobe), deeper processing, and STRONG memory

craik and tulving, 1972

had people remember a list of 48-60 words while asking them questions that related to different levels of processing (how the words sounded, if they had capital letters if the word related to something alive), when they were tested later, those who were asked questions that were SEMANTIC had an easier time remembering the words.

encoding specificity principle

the best way to encode and recall memory is to use the same sense organs

elaboration

rather than just putting the information into your memory, add details to the memory to help encode it

dual code theory

this says that its better to encode info using multiple sense modalities

self-referent encoding

if you can connect the info you are trying to remember to yourself, it will make it easier

cocktail party phenomenon

we care so much about ourselves that we are always looking to hear our name, even in a very complex and loud environment, if we hear our name being said across the room, it will automatically catch our attention

motivation to remember

putting an effort into remembering something by setting an alarm for it or putting it next to something important will actually help you remember it without needing that

pegwords

usually, nouns that rhyme that you use to try to remember certain things

method of loci

take a location or path that you are familiar with and place the things that you need to remember along that path

chunking

turning a lot of information into a little information

ex. if you are trying to remember numbers, grouping them together will help

spacing/testing effect

if you space out your encoding, you are more likely to remember this information

ex. studying for a test in advance

atkinson-shiffrin model of memory

says that we have 3 bins for memory

sensory memory

the first bin of memory in the atkinson-shiffrin model of memory, large capacity, short duration (around 2-3 seconds), visual lasts longer than auditory memories

sperling, 1960

grids of information were flashed in front of participants. the researchers would ask for either a full or partial report of what was being flashed on the screen for them. the participants would hear a certain tone for each row of letters they were required to remember. when asked for a full report, the participants would only be able to remember half the information. however, when asked for a partial report, they were able to remember all 3 of the numbers each time

short-term memory

the second bin in the atkinson-shiffrin model of memory, longer duration of memory (around 30 seconds to a minuet), shorter/smaller capacity

miller 7 + 2

the average person can remember around 5 - 9 pieces of information from their short-term memory, this relates to chunking information

long-term memory

third bin in the atkinson-shiffrin model of memory, seemingly limitless capacity along with duration

procedural model

also known as muscle memory, the memory of how to do things, fairly effortless (long term)

declarative memory

a memory that you are often times putting into words, often more effortful

episodic

memory for events, tied to the event of learnig

ex. recalling the events that occurred on your last b-day

autobiographical memory

memory about yourself, semantic and episodic memory

HSAM (highly superior autobiographical memory)

remembers every bit of information about themselves, this does not occur in short-term memory though (they have normal short-term memory)

prospective

remembering to do something in the future, the further in the future or the more complicated the memory, the harder it is

retrospective

memory of the past

alan baddeley

proposed the concept of working memory

working memory

a component of short-term memory

patience rehearsal

repetition, not changing the info that you are holding in short-term memory in any way, can fade quickly

elaborative rehearsal

forming deeper connections to increase storage potential

visuospatial sketchpad

responds to visual and spatial information

phonological loop

auditory or language information

central executive

guide resources and attention

episodic buffer

keeps information in sequence, helpful to make connections between the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop

benefits to having a good working memory

good overall memory, easier time doing well in school, positive correlation with decision-making

consolidation

turning short-term memory into stable long-term memory

hippocampus

critical for the process of consolidation, important for creating new long-term memories

rem (rapid eye movement) sleep

a very deep level of sleep where most of our body is paralyzed, this is when we do the process of consolidation and turn short-term memory into long-term memory

reconsolidation

taking information from long-term memory to put in short-term memory, then returning the information into long-term memory

implicit retrieval of memory

unconscious effortless retrieval, procedural memory, more impacted by cerebellum and basil ganglia

explicitly retrieval of memory

searching your memory for the information, more related to the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex

state-dependent retrieval

the emotional state that we are in at retrieval influences the information that we retrieve, your emotional state acts as a guide of where to find the memory

associative network

the organization of information in long-term memory, activating one component makes it easier to access connected components

schemas

shortcuts our brain uses when we are processing information

recall

testing memory/asking to retrieve memory with little to no cues (e.g. an essay test), a harder way of testing memory, if you are successful you have more faith in it

recognition

getting a lot of codes or cues to help guide the retrieval (e.g. multiple choice exam), easier task but you are leaving more up to chance

relearning

how long it takes you to relearn a task that you learned previously (more commonly associated with animals)

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve old information, a fairly rare phenomenon

anterograde amnesia

an inability to create new memories, more common

serial positioning effect

we are more likely to remember information based on when it is presented to us

primacy

we remember information that is presented to us first, this happens because we can devote more resources to remembering the information so we are creating better and stronger memories, more stable

recency

where information that is presented to us last, happens because the information is still in our short-term memory

selective attention

we remember information we are paying attention to and fail to pay attention to anything else

own race bias

we are better at discriminating between members of our race in comparison to another race

source monitoring

the ability to remember where you heard information from

cryptomnesia

accidental plagiarism, when you get a thought in your head and think that you created the thought because you don’t realize you heard it from someone else

tip of the tongue phenomenon

when you know you know a piece of information but you are currently unable to retrieve it

ineffective encoding

unable to accurately encode information (e.g. the invisible gorilla)

retrieval failure

correctly encoded and stored the information however now that you are trying to retrieve the information you cant

interference

some other piece of information that is interfering with you remembering something

proactive interference

old information that is interfering with new information

retroactive interference

new information is interfering with your ability to learn new information

suggestively

how open you are to changing your memory, primarily an issue with reconsolidation

bias

we remember information that fits with our beliefs and expectation and we are more likely to forget information that goes against our beliefs and expectations

persistence

big issue with PTSD, where you are constantly recalling and reconsolidating this memory

synaptic pruning

as you learn and become more proficient in things, the brian prunes synapses that are no longer needed

classical conditioning

reflexive or automatic behaviors

operant/operational conditioning

conscious, effortful behaviors

neutral stimuli (NS)

a stimulus that does not initially elicit the desired response

unconditioned stimuli (US/UCS)

stimulus that causes a natural reflexive response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

what the neutral stimulus becomes through repeated pairing

unconditioned response (UR)

a natural reflexive response that the unconditioned stimulus elicits

conditioned response (CR)

the learned response that the conditioned stimulus elicits

classical conditioning acquisition

the time period that learning is occurring, the time period where the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus

classical conditioning extinction

once the organism stops responding to the conditioned stimulus

classical conditioning spontaneous recovery

happens after extinction, the organism stops responding to the stimulus but will randomly start responding to it once again

generalization

responding to a stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus

discrimination

recognize that a new stimulus is a new stimulus and not responding

taste aversion

happens when you get some sort of stomach issue or get sick after eating a food, the next time you are presented with that food you are nauseous

(e.g. cosmic brownies)

higher order processing

conditioned stimulus can begin to act as an unconditioned stimulus for a new round of learning

latent inhabition

previous learning interfering with new learning, can be an example of proactive interference

renewal effect

similar to spontaneous recovery, happens when learning and extinction occur in different environments, learning comes back after extinction when you put it back in the initial context

thorndike’s law of effect

if positive consequences happen in response to an action, that action is likely to repeat

reinforcement

when you are trying to increase a behavior or action

punishment

when you are trying to decrease a behavior or action

postive

adding something to a situation

ex. adding something to a situation to increase behavior is positive reinforcement

negative

taking something away from a situation

ex. taking something away from a situation to increase the behavior is negative reinforcement

ratio stimulus

the stimulus that is triggering the response is just the reaction

interval stimulus

the stimulus that triggers the response is time

premack principle

a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity

partial reinforcement

when you reinforce a behavior in some environments but not others

primary reinforcer

something that fulfills a biological need

ex. food

secondary reinforcer

reinforcers you have to learn are good

ex. money

shaping

how you get to complicated behaviors with most animal tricks, you reward for good behavior that is close to the intended action until they’re able to display the action