Foundations of Reading

Automaticity

Quick, effortless, and accurate recognition of individual words when reading

Alliteration

Words that start with the same initial sound

Onset

The initial consonants or consonant blends in syllables

Rimes

The vowels and remaining consonants that follow the onset

Phonological Awareness

The ability to identify and manipulate sounds in spoken language

Phonemic Awareness

One specific component of phonological awareness that focuses on the ability to identify and manipulate sounds at the phoneme level only

Phonemes

The smallest unit of speech

Phoneme Isolation

The ability to identify specific phonemes in spoken words (initial, medial, and final sounds)

Phoneme Identification

Identifying the common sound in a list of words that have either the same beginning, middle, or ending sound

Phoneme Characterization

Identifying the word that doesn’t belong when given a set of words in which all but one have the same beginning, middle, or ending phoneme

Blending

A complex skill where students are given the phonemes that make up a word in isolation, and they must identify the whole word formed by putting the phonemes together

Segmenting

Students are given a whole word and must identify the individual phonemes that make up that word

Phoneme Deletion

Removing one phoneme from a word and identifying what new word was formed

Phoneme Substitution

Changing one phoneme in a word and identifying what new word was formed

Elkonin Boxes

A series of connected boxes, students listen to a word, and slide a counter into a box each time they hear a new sound

Phonics

The relationship between letters and the sounds they make (letter-sound correspondence)

Fluency

Reading accurately with the appropriate speed and intonation

Syntactic Cues

Readers use knowledge about correct oral language structures and the ways sentences are put together to decode and make meaning

Semantic Cues

Readers use prior knowledge from personal experiences along with meaning contained in the text and pictures to make sense of what they are reading

Decoding

The process of translating print to speech, which is done by translating graphemes into phonemes

Graphemes

The letters or groups of letters that represent a single sound

Encoding

The process of translating sounds to print using knowledge of letter-sound relationships, which is done by translating phonemes into graphemes

Consonant Blend

A group of two or three consonants that blend together to make a sound, but each individual letter sound is still heard (bl-, fr-, sw-)

Consonant Digraph

A group of two consonants that form a new consonant sound when combined (th-, sh-, ch-)

R-Controlled Vowels

Vowels that appear before the letter “r” in a word and are sometimes called bossy-r words because the letter “r” changes the sound of the vowel (ar, er, ir, or)

Explicit Instruction

When phonics lessons are purposely planned to address specific skills, rather than waiting until problems arise with decoding words while readingI

Implicit Instruction

Progresses from whole (unknown words encountered in text) to part (breaking down the words in order to decode them

Alphabetic Principle

Knowing that each letter makes a predictable sound

Homographs

Words that are spelled the same but may be pronounced differently and have different meanings (bat and bat)

Compound Word

Combining two or more words to form one word with a unique meaning (e.g. houseboat, moonlight, basketball)

Affixes

Letters or groups of letters that are added to root words. There are multiple types.

Prefix

A letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a root word

Suffix

A letter or group of letters added to the end of a root word

Derivational Affixes

Letters or groups of letters added to root words to change the meanings of the words or the parts of speech

Inflectional Affixes

Do not change the part of speech of a word, but they do serve a grammatical function

Graphophonics

Strategy where readers consider the letter-sound relationships in the word

Definitional Approach

Vocabulary learning where students are either provided definitions of words or look them up in a dictionary, and they are drilled until they commit the meanings to memory (most traditional approach)

Structural Approach

Vocabulary learning that emphasizes the morphological features of words – the roots, prefixes, and suffixes

Contextual Approach

Vocabulary learning that provides the students with multiple examples of a word used in realistic contexts, allowing them to infer the meaning without resorting to a dictionary or an explicit definition

Categorical Approach

Vocabulary learning that groups words into categories based on semantic similarity

Mnemonic Approach

Vocabulary learning that builds associations between target words and mental images so that hearing a target word evokes the image, facilitating recall of the word’s meaning

Non-Contextual Approach

Used when new vocabulary is learned without seeing or hearing the words in context

Tier One Words

Common words used in everyday speech, typically learned in the early grades through normal conversation, and don’t really require explicit instruction

Tier Two Words

Found in both fiction and nonfiction texts and are common enough that readers will likely encounter them in multiple textsT

Tier Three Words

Mostly found in nonfiction texts and are domain-specific, and require explicit instruction that often includes pre-teaching the words and analyzing them in contextR

Reading Comprehension

Understanding what has been read by making meaning from the text, creating meaning by using prior knowledge, decoding, fluency, understanding word meanings, predicting, inferring, and more

Literal Comprehension

Understanding the written meaning of a text, including the text’s vocabulary, events, main ideas, and other features

Inferential Comprehension

A deeper level of understanding that requires inferring what the author meant and making predictions, inferences, or drawing conclusions

Evaluative Comprehension

Deeper level of understanding that requires readers to make judgments and share opinions about what they have read based upon evidence found in the text and prior knowledge

Summarization

Providing a concise description of the main idea and key details of a text — helps readers separate important information and vocabulary, and helps them remember what they read

Aesthetic Reading

Purpose for reading is entertainment

Efferent Reading

Purpose for reading is for information

Inferring

Drawing conclusions based on facts, prior knowledge, or text evidence rather than explicit statements

Metacognition

When readers think about their own thinking

Facts

Statements that can be proven to be true

Opinions

Statements that cannot be proven to be tue or false

Author’s Craft

An author’s style of writing (word choice, text structure, point of view, use of literary elements, message, tone, etc.)

Close Reading

Reading and analyzing a text in a thoughtful manner to develop a deep understanding of its meaning, theme, use of language, and other elements

Synthesis

The ability to gather information from multiple sources and combine it to make meaning

Simile

Used to compare two things using the terms like or as

Metaphor

Used to compare two things, but do not use the terms like or as. They simply state that one thing is another

Personification

Gives human characteristics to nonhuman things such as animals, objects in nature, or ideas

Hyperbole

Uses exaggeration for effect – the exaggeration is so excessive that it is not intended to be taken literally

Symbolism

Using a physical object as a representation of something other than its literal meaning. The symbol often represents something abstract, such as a feeling or idea

Allusions

Well-known people or events familiar to readers without describing them explicitly (commonly found in similes or metaphors)

Idioms

Expressions that have unique meanings that differ from literal meanings of their component words (typically passed down within cultures)

Proverbs

Short, well-known sayings that offer wisdom or advice

Inductive Teaching

Students read and analyze texts that contain similarities, look for patterns, and identify grammar rules by themselves

Deductive Teaching

Students are explicitly told grammatical concepts and rules before being asked to apply them to their own reading and writing

Nouns

Describe people, places, and things

Verbs

Describe action or being

Pronouns

Words used in place of nouns

Adjectives

Describe nouns or pronouns (usually describe which one, what kind, or how many of something)

Adverbs

Describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (usually describe when, where, why, or how something happens, and they often end in -ly)

Prepositions

Words that relate nouns or pronouns to other words in the sentence

Conjunctions

Join words, phrases, or clauses

Interjections

Show emotion in sentences (ex: ouch)

Emergent Reading Stage

Readers develop pre-reading behaviors and begin understanding concepts of print

Early Reading Stage

Readers begin to use a combination of reading strategies and cueing systems to decode and comprehend simple texts

Transitional Reading Stage

Readers use a wide range of reading strategies to support comprehension of more complex texts. They are also able to read at an increased pace through a combination of rapid word recognition and effective use of strategies

Fluent Reading Stage

Readers confidently read and comprehend a wide range of complex texts independently

Academic Literacy

The knowledge and skills necessary to communicate effectively in academic situations (content-specific knowledge and vocabulary) through reading, writing, listening, and speaking

Social Knowledge

Knowledge about social conventions passed down within members of a community (conventions related to expected greetings, manners and conversational behavior)

Procedural Knowledge

Knowledge applied to carry out procedural tasks (like a math problem)

Physical Knowledge

Knowledge learned by observing the features of something (properties of rock samples)

Domain Knowledge

Knowledge and skills used by experts in a particular field (student explaining how she completed a division problem using the terms dividend, divisor, etc.)

Empirical Knowledge

Knowledge obtained from scientific experimentation and data collection

Rate

Reading speed

Accuracy

Decoding words correctly without errors

Prosody

Reading expression, including phrasing and intonation

Cooing Stage

Commonly making vowel sounds, which represent their first attempts at oral language (0-4 months)

Babbling Stage

Commonly make repeated consonant-vowel sounds (e.g., mama). Over time, their babbling begins to show the expressive patterns they hear in the language around them (4 or 6 - 12 months)

One-Word Stage

Ability to refer to objects by consistent, one-word names. These words may be real or invented, and children begin to use language to convey meaning to others (12-24 months)

Telegraphic Stage

Ability to string together words to convey meaning. The words that convey the most meaning in sentences are often included, whereas articles, conjunctions, and other words are omitted (2-3 years)

Oral Fluency Stage

Ability to use more complex sentences and begin using sentence structure and syntax appropriately. Language is used for a variety of purposes (3+ years)

Preproduction Stage

ELLs are listening and taking in the second language. Comprehension is minimal. Sometimes referred to as the silent period. ELLs may communicate with gestures or single words

Early Production Stage

Comprehension is limited, but ELLs begin responding using 1-2 word answers while vocabulary begins to grow

Speech Emergence Stage

With increased comprehension, ELLs begin speaking in longer sentences, but grammatical errors may be present. Vocabulary in the second language greatly increases

Intermediate Proficiency Stage

ELLs can comprehend much of what they hear. They begin speaking in more complex sentences that contain fewer grammatical errors and can communicate fluently with others in the second language

Advanced Fluency Stage

ELLs understand academic vocabulary and need little support to participate actively in the classroom. They can speak with near-native English fluency