POLS 207 Exam #2 (pt 1)

_______ is the essence and definition of democracy

Popular participation

What does political participation include?

Voting, running for office, participating in marches or demonstrations, giving money or time to efforts, attending rallies or events, writing letters or emails, wearing a button, discussing issues with friends, or belonging to an organization

What is sustained political participation?

Consistent voting in presidential and non-presidential elections

What is protest? What makes protest effective?

Direct, collective activity to obtain concessions.

Effectiveness depends on:

• Clear concise, and obtainable goal

• Must have positive media coverage, no violence, should not violate First Amendment

• Response of news media is often the key to success

• Violence is typically criminal, generally irrational and self-defeating

What is civil disobedience? Must be ______.

• Break "unjust’ laws and accept the punishment

• must be peaceful

• ex. Letter from Birmingham jail

Originally, in order to vote, you had to be a white male, 21+, who owned property. When did progress for suffrage first begin? Which requirement was the first to be eliminated?

The elimination of property qualifications happened by early 1800s.

• More specifically, in the 1820s, the election of the first common man president: Andrew Jackson

• Congress also reflects general population more

The Civil War brought about the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments. Describe each. Year of 15th amendment?

13th:

• Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.

• Marked the formal end of legal slavery in the U.S.

14th:

• Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including formerly enslaved people.

• Established the Equal Protection Clause, Due Process Clause, and Privileges or Immunities Clause.

• It’s a foundational amendment for civil rights and individual liberties.

15th (1870):

• Prohibited the federal and state governments from denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

• Intended to guarantee voting rights for Black men.

Is the 15th amenment enforced? Why/why not? (4)

No, people put various obstacles in place

• Grandfather clause: if your grandfather could vote, so can you

• Literacy test

• White primaries: primary elections in which only white citizens were allowed to vote (typically democratic party).

  • Since winning the Democratic primary was effectively the same as winning the general election, this excluded Black voters from meaningful political participation.

• Poll taxes

When was the grandfather clause ruled unconstitutional? Describe this

The grandfather clause was ruled unconstitutional in the Supreme Court case Guinn v. United States (1915).

• The Supreme Court held that Oklahoma’s grandfather clause violated the 15th Amendment.

When were white primaries ruled unconstitutional? Describe this.

Smith v. Allwright (1944):

• The Supreme Court ruled that white primaries violated the 15th Amendment, which prohibits racial discrimination in voting.

• The Court rejected the argument that political parties are private organizations and stated that primaries are a crucial part of the electoral process, so state-sanctioned racial discrimination in primaries is unconstitutional.

When was the poll tax eliminated? Describe this.

• Eliminated by the 24th Amendment (ratified in 1964)

• The 24th Amendment made it unconstitutional to require a poll tax in federal elections (e.g., elections for president, Congress).

When were literacy tests eliminated? Describe this.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

When were women allowed the right to vote? What amendment was this? What happens after this?

Women were granted the right to vote in 1920 with the ratification of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

• Initially, low voter registration and turnout among women

• The women’s movement entered a “doldrums” period post-suffrage

• Women didn’t vote in large numbers until the 1960s

Describe the Civil Rights Act of 1964

• Banned…

• Required equal ______ across ____.

• Illegal to _____ after ______.

• Limited…

• Banned discrimination in public accommodations

• Required equal voting access across districts

• Illegal to turn away voters in line after polls close (though it still happened)

• Limited impact on voting rights directly, led to further action

What did the Voting Rights act of 1965 target? Banned ______ and allowed ________ to be sent into areas with a history of discrimination (“________”)What is a precelarance requirement?

Targeted racial discrimination in voting

Banned literacy tests and allowed federal voter registrars to be sent into areas with a history of discrimination (“covered jurisdictions”)

• Enforcement of equal voting access.

Preclearance requirement: Jurisdictions with discriminatory histories had to get federal approval before changing voting laws

When was the preclearance requirement of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 struck down? Describe this.

Shelby County v. Holder (2013)

• Supreme Court struck down the preclearance formula

• Reason: Congress was using outdated data (from the 1970s)

• Result: States no longer need federal approval before changing voting laws

• But: DOJ can still sue states after the fact

What is the 26th Amendment?

• 1971

• Lowered voting age to 18

• States may allow any age to vote in local and state elections

2 + 6 = 8 — Teen!

Post Shelby County vs Holder, what became a key issue?

Redistricting and Gerrymandering

🔹 Before Shelby v. Holder:

• States like Texas, Alabama, and others had to submit redistricting plans for federal approval.

• This prevented racially discriminatory district maps from going into effect.

• It acted as a check on gerrymandering that diluted minority voting power.

🔹 After Shelby v. Holder:

• These same states no longer needed federal approval to change voting laws or redraw district lines.

• Many states immediately enacted new redistricting plans that were accused of racial gerrymandering or voter suppression.

• Lawsuits challenging these maps now had to be reactive—after the maps went into effect—rather than proactively blocked.

Name the 3 voter requirements in Texas

• Citizen of the US

• At least 18 years old

• Resident of the state for 30 days

Describe Nixon V Herndon (1927). What was this before?

 The U.S. Supreme Court struck down a Texas law that explicitly barred black voters from participating in primaries, ruling it unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment.

• Nixon v. Herndon was before white primaries were fully outlawed.

• White primaries were officially outlawed in 1944, with the decision in Smith v. Allwright.

What was Grovey V Townsend (1935)?

 The Supreme Court upheld the Democratic Party's right to exclude black voters, viewing the party as a private organization. This decision reinforced the legality of white primaries for a time.

• The Supreme Court argued that the democratic party was a private organization (not bound by 14th or 15th amendment, unlike Nixon v Herndon, in which Texas tried to pass a law)

Smith Vs. Allwright was after, in 1944

Grovey is a weasely name, this is a weasely court case.

What is voter turnout?

The % of the voting age population or registered voters that cast ballots in an election

Describe voter turnout in Texas. Texas is a…

Somewhat low.

• Not stressed in a traditionalistic culture

• Lowest for local election

• Texas is a one party state

What is a rational voter? Is voting rational?

• One who will vote only if the person's benefits outweighs the cost

Voting is not a rational act, the costs far outweigh the benefits (benefits are hard to quantify)

What is the largest cost of voting?

Information costs, the burden of becoming informed

What are open primaries? What does this allow for? What is crossover voting?

Open primaries allow any registered voter to participate in any party's primary, regardless of their party affiliation. This allows for broader participation and gives independent voters a chance to influence the selection of candidates.

• This allows for crossover voting, which occurs when a voter participates in a primary election for a political party with which he or she does not generally affiliate.

What is a closed primary?

Closed primaries allow only registered members of a political party can vote to choose that party's candidates. This system ensures that only dedicated party members have a say in selecting their party’s nominee.

What is a blanket primary? Jungle primary?

Blanket primary

• All candidates from all parties appear on the same primary ballot

• Voters can pick one candidate per office, regardless of party (e.g., vote Democrat for governor, Republican for senator)

• Each party still gets a candidate in the general election
  ➡ One Democrat, one Republican, etc.

Jungle Primary

• All candidates from all parties are on the same ballot

• Voters can choose any candidate, regardless of party

• Top two vote-getters overall, regardless of party, advance to the general election

Key Feature:
It’s possible to have two Democrats or two Republicans face off in the general election.

What is a semi-closed primary?

In a semi-closed primary, registered party members can vote only in their party's primary, but unaffiliated (independent) voters can choose which party's primary to vote in.

What do general elections determine?

Determine the officials who will hold public office at various levels of government, including federal, state, and local levels.

How frequently do presidential elections occur? Other major elections?

 Presidential elections occur every four years, while midterm elections, congressional elections for all members of the House of Representatives and one-third of the Senate, occur every two years.

What are the socioeconomic explanations for voter turnout? What is the most likely predictor?

High educaiton/ income= more likely to vote

High education is still the most likely predictor

How can partisan competition explain voter turnout?

 

• Most states are one-party non-competitive states

• Only about 7 states decide who the president will be

• Texas has always trended toward being a one-party state

• In states that are battleground states, we typically see more turnout

How does the media affect voter turnout? 3 ways.

• Voters are often influenced by perceived winners.

  • Many people prefer to vote for the candidate they believe is likely to win ("bandwagon effect").

• When the media begins to report projected winners, it can affect voting behavior:

  • If a candidate is reported to be leading, that lead can grow simply because more people want to support the “winning side.”

• Time zone differences can create problems:

  • For example, polls close at 8 PM on the East Coast, but it’s still 5 PM on the West Coast.

  • If media outlets start calling the election based on East Coast results before polls close in Western states, it could discourage people in those states from voting — especially if they think the outcome is already decided.

• To prevent this:

  • Major news networks wait until polls have closed in all states (especially California) before officially projecting a winner.

  • This helps reduce the risk of lower voter turnout caused by premature predictions.

What are the legal and procedural explanations for voter turnout?

• Differences in registration procedures (less restrictive more turnout)

• Federally mandated “motor voter” registration law

• Differences in the actual voting experience: time, place, equipment, ballots (block ballots easier to read than butterfly ballots) and poll workers

Is there still debate about the best way to conduct elections? Describe this.

• Effects of certain election reforms are still being debated

• Election reform efforts have also become considerably more partisan and are particularly intense in states with high levels of party competition

What do the prevalent controversial issues concerning elections include?

• Voter eligibility and verifications

• Voting locations and ease of voting

• Online registration, ballot requests, and voting

What is a party?

An organization that seeks to achieve power by winning public office in elections

Interest groups ______, political parties ______.

Endorse, nominate

• The official endorsement of a party is a nomination

We nominate candidates to office through ______.

Primaries

What is a responsible party model?

A party system in which each party offers clear policy alternatives and holds its elected officials responsible for enacting these policies in office

Describe how candidates get elected in the US (what are their strategies, subject matters of elections, etc).

• In order to win an election with a party, you need more votes than the other candidates.

• To do this, parties need to be policy generalists

• Elections are decided on a few issues, with the economy at the forefront of every election, followed by foreign policy.

Although elections center around a few key issues, what would you find if you read a party platform? What can special interest groups do?

• A party view on every issue you can think of.

• Special interest groups can be policy specialists by only focusing on one or a few issues.

What is the candidate-centered model?

Individual candidates, rather than parties, raise funds, create personal organizations, and rely on professional consultants to direct their campaigns

As per the responsible party model, the parties…(6)

• Develop and clarify alternative policy positions for voters.

• Educate people about issues and simplify choices

• recruit candidates for office who agree with the party positions

• organize and direct their candidates to win elections

• Hold their elected officials responsible for enacting the parties’ policy positions.

• Organize legislatures to ensure party control of policymaking.

Where did the responsible party model originate? Why doesn’t it work in the US?

Hints:

• US politics at the time were highly characterized by ______

• Voters only…

• Candidates moved _______ to ________

• US has a _____ political _____

• To fully understand a party’s stance…

• Voters are influenced by…

• Candidates prioritize…

• Crossing the aisle- what is the result?

• Originated in 1950s, modeled after British Parliamentary behavior, where voting patterns were highly predictable (ex. 95% of labor party voted against the conservative party bills)

• In the US, however, politics were characterized by bipartisanship (members of both parties frequently work together, vote together, and support similar legislation).

• Doesn’t work because

  • Voters only tend to pay attention during election season.

  • Candidates have to move to the political center to attract more voters.

  • The US has a narrow political spectrum, so differences between party platforms may seem small.

  • To fully understand a party’s stance, voters would have to read the party platform (few do)

  • Most voters are influenced more by media or personality.

  • Candidates prioritize winning over strict policy alignment

  • Crossing the aisle (voting with the other party) rarely results in punishment, unlike in parliamentary systems.

Describe the accountability issues in the US (one of the reasons we don’t have a responsible party model)

• Parties cannot force elected officials to vote along party lines

• In the UK (parliamentary systems), parties can:

  • Call elections at any time

  • replace party leaders more easily

  • punish members for disloyalty

• In the US

  • we have fixed election cycles

  • even if policy fails, officials rarely resign

  • Crossing party lines may damage your career (may not be re-nominated), but no formal punishment mechanism

The candidate-centered model of elections coincides with the advent of primary elections. Describe this.

• Voters, not party leaders, choose who will run as the party’s candidate

• This weakens party control over elections: parties don’t control the ballot anymore

• Candidates can go around the party by appealing directly to voters in primaries

With the candidate-centered model of elections, there is a decline in party identificiation, as well as an increase in split-ticket voting. Describe this. What is split ticket voting?

• Parties are still important for governing and organizing elections, but…

• They are less central in campaigning.

• Candidates can fundraise independently and appear on media

Split-ticket voting is when a voter selects candidates from different political parties for different offices on the same ballot.

Example:

• Voting for a Democrat for president

• And a Republican for senator
  — all in the same election.

Describe the role of mass media in the candidate-centered model of elections.

• TV and the internet let candidates build personal brands.

• Voters start to vote for the person, not necessarily the party.

• Media exposure helps candidates raise funds and name recognition.

Give an example of the candidate-centered model. What movement was this person a supporter of?

• Former Vice Presidential nominee under Al Gore.

• Supported the Iraq War, which alienated many Democratic voters.

• Lost the Democratic primary for his Senate seat.

• Ran as an independent, won the general election against both major party nominees.

• Showed how a candidate could succeed outside traditional party structures.

• Became a supporter of the “No Labels” movement, which pushes centrist candidates not defined by party labels.

With the candidate-centered model came a decline in political patronage. Describe this.

What is political patronage?

How did it work?

Why did it decline?

• Hint: the _____ civil _____ ___

• After this, loyalty shifted from _____ to the _____.

Political patronage: Parties offered material rewards (ex. jobs, trash cans) in exchange for voter loyalty

• These were known as political machines, particularly powerful in cities.

How it worked

• If you voted for a certain party, your whole family might benefit

• Your job could even include recruiting more voters for the party

Why it declined

• In the late 1800s and early 1900s, reforms banned using government jobs as rewards (Pendleton Civil Service Act)

• Direct primaries reduced party control over nominations.

• This contributed to the rise of the candidate-centered model, where loyalty shifted from the party to the individual candidate.

What are the 3 tenets of the Downs model? Which theorem did this introduce?

• Rational choice theory

  • Political scientist Anthony Downs’ model

  • Individuals make political decisions by rationally weighing the costs and benefits to maximize their personal advantage.

• Most voters are moderate.

  • Center of the political spectrum

• Parties seek voter loyalty.

  • Position themselves to left and right of center

This introduced the central voter theorem.

• Voter ideology follows a bell curve.

• To win elections, candidates must position themselves near the center to capture the most votes

Summary: Anthony Downs put forth a theoretical framework to understand political parties' behavior in a democratic system using a rational choice approach.4 The model assumes that political actors (i.e., political parties) are rational and make decisions that maximize their utility. For voters, this means choosing the party or candidate that best represents their preferences. For parties, this means adopting policies maximizing their chances of winning elections.

Median voter theorem: This theorem posits that in a two-party system,5 parties will converge toward the median voter's preferences (i.e., the voter whose preferences are in the middle of the political spectrum).

What can a candidate do after they win the election?

They can shift back toward their base, but they must court the swing voters to get elected.

Duverger’s law reinforces the Downs model. Describe this.

In winner-take-all systems like the US, there is a psychological barrier to supporting third parties.

• Voters see this as wasting a vote, leading to a two-party system

• This encourages both major parties to compete for independent voters, but they cannot move too far or they risk alienating their base.

Despite a decline in political patronage, parties still perform important political functions… (4)

• They organize elections and narrow the choices of political office seekers confronting the voters

• They continue to play an important role in voter choice

• Party organizations and activists in the states play an important role in guiding their party and shaping its image with the voters

• The Dem and Repub parties perform the central task of organizing state legislatures.

For a primary, how do you get on the Ballot? What do you need in practice (3)?

• Technically, anyone can run for office by registering and paying a fee

• In practice, candidates need…

  • Money

  • Party support

  • Endorsements from groups like civic organizations, unions and newspapers

What is an open primary?

• No party registration required to vote

• Voters can choose to vote in either the Democratic or Republican primary on Election Day.

• Election workers are affiliated with the party — not government employees

What is a closed primary?

• Voters must be registered with a political party ahead of time to vote in that party’s primary.

• Meant to ensure that only true party members help choose party nominees.

What is the Texas primary system?

• Technically a closed primary, but functions like an open primary.

• Voters do not register by party in advance.

• Once you vote in one party's primary, you’re locked into that party for any runoff elections.

• Crossover voting is allowed in the initial primary but not in the runoff.

• Example: A Democrat might vote in the Republican primary to sabotage it by choosing a weaker opponent.

• BUT: If that Democrat votes in the Republican primary, they cannot vote in the Democratic runoff, even if their preferred candidate ends up needing help.

• However, if you didn’t vote in either primary, you can vote in either party's runoff.

What is the difference between caucuses and primaries? Timing? Ballots?

 Primaries (like in Texas):

• Polling hours: 7am–7pm

• Voters cast ballots like in a general election

• Typically short lines

Caucuses (like in Iowa):

• Meetings of party members held in the evening (usually 7–10pm)

• Not a private ballot — involves discussion and public alignment

• Voting starts around 9:00–9:30pm

What are runoff primaries? Where is this common?

• If no candidate receives a majority, the top two candidates go to a runoff.

• This is common in Southern states, including Texas

Describe Louisiana’s Jungle primary system (AKA French common law system) What is the problem with this?

• Also called a blanket or nonpartisan primary.

• All candidates, regardless of party, appear on the same ballot.

• If no one gets a majority, top two candidates go to a runoff, regardless of party.

  • So: two Republicans or two Democrats might be the only choices in the runoff.

• Problem: If a voter’s party isn’t represented, turnout drops, which especially hurts minority parties in some districts.

Describe Presidential primaries and caucuses

• Candidates compete for delegates, not direct wins.

• Strategy is to win as many delegates as possible state by state.

In this class, the overview of the party system is presented as a T-chart. Name the steps. When is this side most important?

1. Voting in the primary serves as your ticket into the precinct convention.

2. Precinct convention

3. County convention

4. State convention (every 2 yrs)

5. National convention (every 4 yrs)

Acronym for this

"Very Proud Citizens Select Nominees"

This side holds most of the power during election years. It's activated through conventions and delegate selection, primarily tied to the primary elections.

How do you get into the precinct convention? What happens there?

• Discuss and ____ on ______ and _____

• Elect ______________

If you vote in the primary and attend the convention, you can influence what issues your precinct will take to the county level.

At the precinct convention

• Discuss and vote on local issues and platform positions.

• Elect delegates to the COUNTY CONVENTION

• Open access: you can bring friends and elect each other to fo to the county convention

What happens at the county convention? When does it happen?

• Occurs about a month after the primary

• Adopts platform planks to recommend to the state party

• Selects delegates to attend the STATE CONVENTION

How frequently does the state convention happen? What happens here?

• Adopts official state party platform

• Elects the state executive committee (ON PERMANENT SIDE)

• Certifies primary winners (Primary winners: People who won their party’s primary race (e.g., for Congress or state offices)

• Selects delegates to attend the NATIONAL CONVENTION

How frequently does the national convention happen? What happens there?

• Every 4 yrs

• Supreme Convention of the party

• Nominates presidential and vice presidential candidates

• Writes national party platform and party rules

• Consists of 4 days with

  • Keynote speeches

  • VP speech

  • Presidential nominee speech

• The national convention defines the party’s platform for the next 4 yrs

On the right side of the t-chart is the permanent side. This side handles operations between the elections. List the 4 aspects.

1. Precinct chair

2. County Committee

3. County chair

4. State Committee

5. National Committee

What is the precinct chair? What do they become a part of? What does their role include?

• One per precinct; all precincts have roughly equal populations.

• elected during the primary election

• Must organize the precinct convention.

• Becomes part of the county executive committee

Role includes

• High responsibility, low pay

• Coordinates all party activity in the precinct

What is the county committee?

• Made up of all Precinct Chairs within the county

• Led by the County Chair, who is elected by voters

• Coordinates local party operations and events

• Responsibilities include:

  • Organizing and staffing elections at the precinct level

  • Supporting local candidates and campaigns

  • Facilitating communication between the state party and precincts

  • Managing local voter outreach and get-out-the-vote efforts

• Provides a key link between grassroots activism and higher party levels

What is the County chair? How do they come to this position? What do we start to see at this level?

• Heads the county executive committee

• Also elected by voters

• At this level, we start to see decentralization:

  • county officials run county operations.

  • State level decisions are no longer voter driven

What is the State Committee? When are they selected? Led by? What do they coordinate?

• Selected at the state convention (from the temporary side of t-chart)

• 2 members per senatorial district (total 64 members per party)

• Led by state chair and vice chair

• Coordinates

  • Candidate recruitment

  • voter outreach

  • state campaign strategy

  • represents the state party to the national committee

What is the National Committee? What do they oversee? Who is it headed by?

• Members chosen differently by each party

• Oversee

  • National campaign strategy

  • Fundraising

  • Organizing the national convention

• Headed by the national chair, who sets the agenda and is elected by committee members

• Sometimes unqualified people are elected to the national committee due to the internal party process.

Describe the interactions between sides of the party T-chart.

• The national convention (temporary) dictates the rules and platform the permanent side must follow for the next 4 years

• Despite some coordination, the system is highly decentralized

  • Local and state parties operate with some autonomy

  • permanent side maintains party structure; temporary side dictates ideological direction

In the executive branch, the ruling party often…

sets the policy agenda and coordinates the implementation of laws.

Interest groups and PAC’s (Political action committees) more likely to give money to…

The incumbent