Results for "tears"

Tears of the Tiger Midterm

Week 6: Tears, Lids and Blinking

Indian Removal Act and the Trail of Tears

Be able to define the importance of the following terms: Causes of WWI Militarism Competition drives tension between countries Motivated to beat each other at having better navy/military Germany had a strong military, were ready to fight if conflict broke Alliances Countries had to defend each other (strength in numbers) Fragile alliance system Minor conflict escalate Imperialism Reason of increased rivalry/competition Fight over land Nationalism Competition to prove supremacy Led to ethnic conflicts Countries were confident in their abilities to win a war Kaiser Wilhelm II Ruled by divine right More ambitious/expansionist than Wilhelm I Wanted “a place in the sun” for Germany Wanted to be a part of the Great Powers of Europe “a place in the sun” 1890- dismisses Bismark Archduke Franz Ferdinand Archduke of Austria Assassinated by Gavrillo Princip (sent by Serbia) *Spark of WWI* Wanted to unite Slavic people in Balkans WWI Technological Innovations Mechanized Warfare - led to trench warfare Machine guns: shot many bullets at a time, helped with defense, not offense, took too many men to operate Artillery: took a lot of time to work, not useful, U-Boats: helped Germany have an advantage over Britain Poison gas: lethal if inhaled, helped Germans slow down their enemies before attacking Tanks: could go in and out of trenches, British used them as a surprise attack against the Germans Planes: made after realizing using the airspace was advantageous Western Front Trench Warfare No fast victories/failed plan (stalemate created) Gases used by Germans to suppress enemies’ ability to fight well At first, gases were a little harmful, later, Mustard Gas would be used, which caused deadly “injuries” Gas attacks hid soldiers, allowed them to get into the enemy trench Rifles/machine guns were too heavy/large for offense Dogs warned soldiers of gas, were good companions, and delivered messages You would be shot if you stuck your head out of the trench No Man’s Land Ground between the trenches of two opposing sides Where fighting occurs, most dangerous area Wilson’s 14 Points President Wilson outlined these points to create lasting peace after WWI Open diplomacy (no secret treaties/alliances) Free navigation of seas Free trade Universal reduction of arms Adjustment of colonial claims -13. Redrawing countries’ boundaries to reflect the ethnicity of the people living there (self-determination) 14. League of Nations ↓↓↓ League of Nations International peacekeeping body Aimed to prevent future wars “Big Four” Leaders of 4 countries came together in Paris to negotiate the Treaty of Versailles Britain- Lloyd George* Italy- Vittorio Emanuel Orlando France- Georges Clemenceau* U.S.- Woodrow Wilson* *The Big Three Paris Peace Conference Treaty of Versailles: Ended WWI - Germany had to accept harsh terms forced by the “Big Four” Rhineland was occupied/demilitarized Reparations: Germany had to pay the total cost of war War-Guilt Clause: Germany had to accept blame for the war (loss of territory/all colonies) Alsace-Lorraine → France Eastern Germany → Poland Danzig → League of Nations Second part ↓↓↓ Be able to understand the concepts of the following themes: Describe the four major causes of World War I. Militarism Alliances Imperialism Nationalism Describe some of the conditions of trench life for soldiers. Harsh conditions led to longer battles Had to stand in trenches and look out for gases that Germans would throw Gas masks would be hot+uncomfy/soldiers had to breathe shallowly so that masks would not fog up Had to carry heavy machine guns/rifles across no man’s land Had to check gas masks for tears Rifles needed to be well cleaned Feet had to be dried otherwise, they could get trench foot as they were standing in muddy and waste-filled water Would eat dinner at noon Soldiers only got to sleep at night for an hour at a time If they slept on the job, they could be sentenced to death Played cards and wrote letters to families to pass the time Explain the impact of World War I on civilians. Civilians were essential to war effort (Home-front) Civilians had to ration food, barely had any supplies Had to eat any animals they found Propaganda was used to- Make them buy war bonds Encourage women to tell their sons/husbands to enlist Ration food for the soldiers Make it easier for civilians to hate the enemy Increase agricultural production Women worked in factories/nursed soldiers Were affected by the chemicals Took up male-dominated work fields Identify the effects of the Treaty of Versailles de

03.Trail of Tears(1838-1839)

Exam 4: Conditions of the Equine Large Intestines and Rectal Tears

Tears labeling

Stats without Tears

PT7711- SLAP Tears

PT7711- Rotator Cuff Tears

tears

Tears of Media 1

PT7711- Rotator Cuff Tears

PT7711- SLAP Tears

pathway for tears

„ INTRODUCTION Medulla is the inner part of adrenal gland and it forms 20% of the mass of adrenal gland. It is made up of interlacing cords of cells known as chromaffin cells. Chromaffin cells are also called pheochrome cells or chromophil cells. These cells contain fine granules which are stained brown by potassium dichromate. Types of chromaffin cells Adrenal medulla is formed by two types of chromaffin cells: 1. Adrenaline-secreting cells (90%) 2. Noradrenaline-secreting cells (10%). „ HORMONES OF ADRENAL MEDULLA Adrenal medullary hormones are the amines derived from catechol and so these hormones are called catecholamines. Catecholamines secreted by adrenal medulla 1. Adrenaline or epinephrine 2. Noradrenaline or norepinephrine 3. Dopamine. „ PLASMA LEVEL OF CATECHOLAMINES 1. Adrenaline : 3 μg/dL 2. Noradrenaline : 30 μg/dL 3. Dopamine : 3.5 μg/dL „ HALF-LIFE OF CATECHOLAMINES Half-life of catecholamines is about 2 minutes. „ SYNTHESIS OF CATECHOLAMINES Catecholamines are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine in the chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla (Fig. 71.1). These hormones are formed from phenylalanine also. But phenylalanine has to be converted into tyrosine. Stages of Synthesis of Catecholamines 1. Formation of tyrosine from phenylalanine in the presence of enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase 2. Uptake of tyrosine from blood into the chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla by active transport 3. Conversion of tyrosine into dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) by hydroxylation in the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase 440 Section 6tEndocrinology FIGURE 71.1: Synthesis of catecholamines. DOPA = Di- hydroxyphenylalanine, PNMT = Phenylethanolamine-N- methyltransferase. 4. Decarboxylation of DOPA into dopamine by DOPA decarboxylase 5. Entry of dopamine into granules of chromaffin cells 6. Hydroxylation of dopamine into noradrenaline by the enzyme dopamine beta-hydroxylase 7. Release of noradrenaline from granules into the cytoplasm 8. Methylation of noradrenaline into adrenaline by the most important enzyme called phenylethanolamine- N-methyltransferase (PNMT). PNMT is present in chromaffin cells. „ METABOLISM OF CATECHOLAMINES Eighty five percent of noradrenaline is taken up by the sympathetic adrenergic neurons. Remaining 15% of noradrenaline and adrenaline are degraded (Fig. 71.2). FIGURE 71.2: Metabolism of catecholamines. COMT = Catechol-O-methyltransferase, MAO = Monoamine oxidase. Stages of Metabolism of Catecholamines 1. Methoxylation of adrenaline into meta-adrenaline and noradrenaline into metanoradrenaline in the presence of ‘catechol-O-methyltransferase’ (COMT). Meta-adrenaline and meta-noradrenaline are together called metanephrines 2. Oxidation of metanephrines into vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) by monoamine oxidase (MAO) Removal of Catecholamines Catecholamines are removed from body through urine in three forms: i. 15% as free adrenaline and free noradrenaline ii. 50% as free or conjugated meta-adrenaline and meta-noradrenaline iii. 35% as vanillylmandelic acid (VMA). „ ACTIONS OF ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE Adrenaline and noradrenaline stimulate the nervous system. Adrenaline has significant effects on metabolic functions and both adrenaline and noradrenaline have significant effects on cardiovascular system. „ MODE OF ACTION OF ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE – ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are executed by binding with receptors called adrenergic receptors, which are present in the target organs. Chapter 71tAdrenal Medulla 441 Adrenergic receptors are of two types: 1. Alpha-adrenergic receptors, which are subdivided into alpha-1 and alpha-2 receptors 2. Beta-adrenergic receptors, which are subdivided into beta-1 and beta-2 receptors. Refer Table 71.1 for the mode of action of these receptors. „ ACTIONS Circulating adrenaline and noradrenaline have similar effect of sympathetic stimulation. But, the effect of adrenal hormones is prolonged 10 times more than that of sympathetic stimulation. It is because of the slow inactivation, slow degradation and slow removal of these hormones. Effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline on various target organs depend upon the type of receptors present in the cells of the organs. Adrenaline acts through both alpha and beta receptors equally. Noradrenaline acts mainly through alpha receptors and occasionally through beta receptors. 1. On Metabolism (via Alpha and Beta Receptors) Adrenaline influences the metabolic functions more than noradrenaline. i. General metabolism: Adrenaline increases oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide removal. It increases basal metabolic rate. So, it is said to be a calorigenic hormone ii. Carbohydrate metabolism: Adrenaline increases the blood glucose level by increasing the glycogenolysis in liver and muscle. So, a large quantity of glucose enters the circulation iii. Fat metabolism: Adrenaline causes mobilization of free fatty acids from adipose tissues. Catecholamines need the presence of glucocorticoids for this action. 2. On Blood (via Beta Receptors) Adrenaline decreases blood coagulation time. It increases RBC count in blood by contracting smooth muscles of splenic capsule and releasing RBCs from spleen into circulation. 3. On Heart (via Beta Receptors) Adrenaline has stronger effects on heart than nor- adrenaline. It increases overall activity of the heart, i.e. i. Heart rate (chronotropic effect) ii. Force of contraction (inotropic effect) iii. Excitability of heart muscle (bathmotropic effect) iv. Conductivity in heart muscle (dromotropic effect). 4. On Blood Vessels (via Alpha and Beta-2 Receptors) Noradrenaline has strong effects on blood vessels. It causes constriction of blood vessels throughout the body via alpha receptors. So it is called ‘general vasoconstrictor’. Vasoconstrictor effect of noradrena- line increases total peripheral resistance. Adrenaline also causes constriction of blood vessels. However, it causes dilatation of blood vessels in skeletal muscle, liver and heart through beta-2 receptors. So, the total peripheral resistance is decreased by adrenaline. Catecholamines need the presence of glucocor- ticoids, for these vascular effects. 5. On Blood Pressure (via Alpha and Beta Receptors) Adrenaline increases systolic blood pressure by increasing the force of contraction of the heart and cardiac output. But, it decreases diastolic blood pressure by reducing the total peripheral resistance. Noradrenaline increases diastolic pressure due to general vasoconstrictor effect by increasing the total peripheral resistance. It also increases the systolic blood pressure to a slight extent by its actions on heart. The action of catecholamines on blood pressure needs the presence of glucocorticoids. TABLE 71.1: Adrenergic receptors Receptor Mode of action Response Alpha-1 receptor Activates IP3 through phospholipase C Mediates more of noradrenaline actions than adrenaline actions Alpha-2 receptor Inhibits adenyl cyclase and cAMP Beta-1 receptor Activates adenyl cyclase and cAMP Mediates actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline equally Beta-2 receptor Activates adenyl cyclase and cAMP Mediates more of adrenaline actions than noradrenaline actions IP3 = Inositol triphosphate 442 Section 6tEndocrinology Thus, hypersecretion of catecholamines leads to hypertension. 6. On Respiration (via Beta-2 Receptors) Adrenaline increases rate and force of respiration. Adrenaline injection produces apnea, which is known as adrenaline apnea. It also causes bronchodilation. 7. On Skin (via Alpha and Beta-2 Receptors) Adrenaline causes contraction of arrector pili. It also increases the secretion of sweat. 8. On Skeletal Muscle (via Alpha and Beta-2 Receptors) Adrenaline causes severe contraction and quick fatigue of skeletal muscle. It increases glycogenolysis and release of glucose from muscle into blood. It also causes vasodilatation in skeletal muscles. 9. On Smooth Muscle (via Alpha and Beta Receptors) Catecholamines cause contraction of smooth muscles in the following organs: i. Splenic capsule ii. Sphincters of gastrointestinal (GI) tract iii. Arrector pili of skin iv. Gallbladder v. Uterus vi. Dilator pupillae of iris vii. Nictitating membrane of cat. Catecholamines cause relaxation of smooth muscles in the following organs: i. Non-sphincteric part of GI tract (esophagus, stomach and intestine) ii. Bronchioles iii. Urinary bladder. 10. On Central Nervous System (via Beta Receptors) Adrenaline increases the activity of brain. Adrenaline secretion increases during ‘fight or flight reactions’ after exposure to stress. It enhances the cortical arousal and other facilitatory functions of central nervous system. 11. Other Effects of Catecholamines i. On salivary glands (via alpha and beta-2 receptors): Cause vasoconstriction in salivary gland, leading to mild increase in salivary secretion ii. On sweat glands (via beta-2 receptors): Increase the secretion of apocrine sweat glands iii. On lacrimal glands (via alpha receptors): Increase the secretion of tears iv. On ACTH secretion (via alpha receptors): Adrenaline increases ACTH secretion v. On nerve fibers (via alpha receptors): Adrenaline decreases the latency of action potential in the nerve fibers, i.e. electrical activity is accelerated vi. On renin secretion (via beta receptors): Increase the rennin secretion from juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney. „ REGULATION OF SECRETION OF ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE Adrenaline and noradrenaline are secreted from adrenal medulla in small quantities even during rest. During stress conditions, due to sympathoadrenal discharge, a large quantity of catecholamines is secreted. These hormones prepare the body for fight or flight reactions. Catecholamine secretion increases during exposure to cold and hypoglycemia also. „ DOPAMINE Dopamine is secreted by adrenal medulla. Type of cells secreting this hormone is not known. Dopamine is also secreted by dopaminergic neurons in some areas of brain, particularly basal ganglia. In brain, this hormone acts as a neurotransmitter. Injected dopamine produces the following effects: 1. Vasoconstriction by releasing norepinephrine 2. Vasodilatation in mesentery 3. Increase in heart rate via beta receptors 4. Increase in systolic blood pressure. Dopamine does not affect diastolic blood pressure. Deficiency of dopamine in basal ganglia produces nervous disorder called parkinsonism (Chapter 151). „ APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA Pheochromocytoma is a condition characterized by hypersecretion of catecholamines. Cause Pheochromocytoma is caused by tumor of chromophil cells in adrenal medulla. It is also caused rarely by tumor of sympathetic ganglia (extra-adrenal pheochromocytoma). Chapter 71tAdrenal Medulla 443 Signs and Symptoms Characteristic feature of pheochromocytoma is hyper- tension. This type of hypertension is known as endocrine or secondary hypertension. Other features: 1. Anxiety 2. Chest pain 3. Fever 4. Headache 5. Hyperglycemia 6. Metabolic disorders 7. Nausea and vomiting 8. Palpitation 9. Polyuria and glucosuria 10. Sweating and flushing 11. Tachycardia 12. Weight loss. Tests for Pheochromocytoma Pheochromocytoma is detected by measuring meta- nephrines and vanillylmandelic acid in urine and Cathecolamines in olasma

Exam 1: Palpebral Closure and Tears

6720 - Tears and Lacrimation

Eyelids, Tears, & Eye Movements

Week 2 - Lacrimal gland and tears