Results for "stimulus"

Biological Science / Psychology Review - Stimulus Response Model ✨

stimulus card question 1 (reaction to card)

reacting to a stimulus / emotional reaction

Stimulus Control, Discrimination, Choice, and Verbal Behavior

Stimulus Based Questions Unit V

AP Euro: Unit (?) - Stimulus Based Questions

Stimuluskontroll og Stimulusekvivalens

PSY 322 Chapter 9 stimulus control

Stimulus Control Vocabulary Flashcards

Introduction to Stimulus and Response

Key Expressions in Emotional Reactions - Reacting to a stimulus/emotional reaction

EPHE 141 Final - Hormones(Stimulus, Gland, Response)

Endocrine System: Stimulus for Secretion

System Interactions in Animals Tools Finish System Interactions in Animals The human body is made of many different organ systems. Each system performs unique functions for the body, but the systems also interact with each other to perform more complex functions. Major Organ Systems Body Systems In humans, cells, tissues, and organs group together to form organ systems. These systems each perform different functions for the human body. The major organ systems and their functions in humans include: The Nervous System — The nervous systems consists of two parts. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that connect the central nervous system to other parts of the body. The brain plays an important role in interpreting the information picked up by the sensory system. It helps in producing a precise response to the stimuli. It also controls bodily functions such as movements, thoughts, speech, and memory. The brain also controls many processes related to homeostasis in the body. The spinal cord connects to the brain through the brainstem. From the brainstem, the spinal cord extends to all the major nerves in the body. The spinal cord is the origin of spinal nerves that branch out to various body parts. These nerves help in receiving and transmitting signals from various body parts. The spinal cord helps in reflex actions of the body The smallest unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell, or neuron. Neurons communicate with each other and with other cells by producing and releasing electrochemical signals known as nerve impulses. Neurons consist of the cell body, the dendrites, and the axon. The cell body consists of a nucleus and cytoplasm. Dendrites are specialized branch-like structures that help in conducting impulses to and from the various body parts. Axons are long, slender extensions of the neuron. Each neuron possesses just a single axon. Its function is to carry the impulses away from the cell body to other neurons. The Circulatory System — The circulatory (or cardiovascular) system is composed of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood to and from the lungs so that gas exchange can take place. As the circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body, dissolved nutrients and wastes are also delivered to their destinations. The heart is a muscular organ roughly the size of an adult human's closed fist. It is present behind the breastbone, slightly to the left. It consists of four chambers: right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle. The heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps this blood to the lugs, where it is oxygenated. The oxygen-rich blood reenters the heart and is then pumped back through the body. The circulatory system is responsible for transporting blood to and from the lungs so that gas exchange can take place. As the circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body, dissolved nutrients and wastes are also delivered to their destinations. Blood circulation takes place through blood vessels. Blood vessels are tubular structures that form a network within the body and transport blood to each tissue. There are three major types of blood vessels: veins, arteries, and capillaries. Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart, except for pulmonary veins, which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different organs, except for the pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. The arteries branch out to form capillaries. These capillaries are thin-walled vessels through which nutrients and wastes are exchanged with cells. The Respiratory System — The main structures of the respiratory system are the trachea (windpipe), the lungs, and the diaphragm. When the diaphragm contracts, it creates a vacuum in the lungs that causes them to fill with air. During this inhalation, oxygen diffuses into the circulatory system while carbon dioxide diffuses out into the air that will be exhaled. The trachea branches out into two primary bronchi. Each bronchus is further divided into numerous secondary bronchi. These secondary bronchi further branch into tertiary bronchi. Finally, each tertiary bronchus branches into numerous bronchioles. Each bronchiole terminates into a tiny, sac-like structure known as an alveolus. The walls of each alveolus are thin and contain numerous blood capillaries. The process of gaseous exchange occurs in these alveoli. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle situated at the lower end of the rib cage. It separates the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, and the chest cavity enlarges, creating a vacuum that allows air to be drawn in. This causes the alveoli in the lungs to expand with air. During this process, oxygen diffuses into the circulatory system while carbon dioxide diffuses out into the air that will be exhaled. On the other hand, expansion of the diaphragm causes exhalation of air containing carbon dioxide. The Digestive System — The digestive system consists of the mouth, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. It is responsible for taking in food, digesting it to extract energy and nutrients that cells can use to function, and expelling the remaining waste material. Mechanical and chemical digestion takes place in the mouth and stomach, while absorption of nutrients and water takes place in the intestines. The digestive system begins at the mouth, where food is taken in, and ends at the anus, where waste is expelled. The food taken into the mouth breaks into pieces by the grinding action of the teeth. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth with the breakdown of carbohydrates into simple sugars with the help of salivary enzymes. The chewed food, known as a bolus, enters the stomach through the esophagus. The bolus mixes with acids and enzymes released by the stomach. Protein digestion starts in the stomach as proteins are broken down into peptides. This partially digested food is known as chyme. Chyme enters the small intestine and mixes with bile, a substance secreted by the liver, along with enzymes secreted by the pancreas. The digestion of fats starts in the small intestine as bile and pancreatic enzymes break down fats into fatty acids. The surface of the small intestine consists of hair-like projections known as villi. These villi help in absorbing nutrients from the digested food. The digested food enters the large intestine, or colon, where water and salts are reabsorbed. Any undigested food is expelled out of the body as waste. The Skeletal System — The skeletal system is made up of over 200 bones. It protects the body's internal organs, provides support for the body and gives it shape, and works with the muscular system to move the body. In addition, bones can store calcium and produce red and white blood cells. The Muscular System — The muscular system includes more than 650 tough, elastic pieces of tissue. The primary function of any muscle tissue is movement. This includes the movement of blood through the arteries, the movement of food through the digestive tract, and the movement of arms and legs through space. Skeletal muscles relax and contract to move the bones of the skeletal system. The Excretory System — The excretory system removes excess water, dangerous substances, and wastes from the body. The excretory system also plays an important role in maintaining body equilibrium, or homeostasis. The human excretory system includes the lungs, sweat glands in the skin, and the urinary system (such as the kidneys and the bladder). The body uses oxygen for metabolic processes. Oxygen metabolism results in the production of carbon dioxide, which is a waste matter. The lungs expel carbon dioxide through the mouth and nose. The liver converts toxic metabolic wastes, such as ammonia, into less harmful susbtances. Ammonia is converted to urea, which is then excreted in the urine. The skin also expels urea and small amounts of ammonia through sweat. The skin is embedded with sweat glands. These glands secrete sweat, a solution of water, salt, and wastes. The sweat rises to the skin's surface, where it evaporates. The skin maintains homeostasis by producing sweat in hot environments. Sweat production cools and prevents excessive heating of the body. Each kidney contains about a million tiny structures called nephrons, which filter the blood and collect waste products, such as urea, salts, and excess water that go on to become urine. The Endocrine System — The endocrine system is involved with the control of body processes such as fluid balance, growth, and sexual development. The endocrine system controls these processes through hormones, which are produced by endocrine glands. Some endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, thymus gland, ovaries in females, and testes in males. The Immune System — The immune system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that defends the body against foreign invaders. The immune system uses antibodies and specialized cells, such as T-cells, to defend the body from microorganisms that cause disease. The Reproductive System — The reproductive system includes structures, such as the uterus and fallopian tubes in females and the penis and testes in males, that allow humans to produce new offspring. The reproductive system also controls certain hormones in the human body that regulate the development of sexual characteristics and determine when the body is able to reproduce. The Integumentary System — The integumentary system is made up of a person's skin, hair, and nails. The skin acts as a barrier to the outside world by keeping moisture in the body and foreign substances out of the body. Nerves in the skin act as an interface with the outside world, helping to regulate important aspects of homeostasis, such as body temperature. Interacting Organ Systems The organ systems work together to perform complex bodily functions. The functions of regulation, nutrient absorption, defense, and reproduction are only possible because of the interaction of multiple body systems. Regulation All living organisms must maintain homeostasis, a stable internal environment. Organisms maintain homeostasis by monitoring internal conditions and making adjustments to the body systems as necessary. For example, as body temperature increases, skin receptors and receptors in a region of the brain called the hypothalamus sense the change. The change triggers the nervous system to send signals to the integumentary and circulatory systems. These signals cause the skin to sweat and blood vessels close to the surface of the skin to dilate, actions which dispel heat to decrease body temperature. Both the nervous system and the endocrine system are typically involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. The nervous system receives and processes stimuli, and then it sends signals to body structures to coordinate a response. The endocrine system helps regulate the response through the release of hormones, which travel through the circulatory system to their site of action. For example, the endocrine system regulates the level of sugar in the blood by the release of the hormones insulin, which stimulates uptake of glucose by cells, and glucagon, which stimulates the release of glucose by the liver. The nervous and endocrine systems interact with the excretory system in the process of osmoregulation, the homeostatic regulation of water and fluid balance in the body. The excretory system expels excess water, salts, and waste products. The excretion of excessive amounts of water can be harmful to the body because it reduces blood pressure. If the nervous system detects a decrease in blood pressure, it stimulates the endocrine system to release antidiuretic hormone. This hormone decreases the amount of water released by the kidneys to ensure appropriate blood pressure. Appropriate levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are also maintained by homeostatic mechanisms that involve several organ systems. Excess carbon dioxide, a byproduct of cellular respiration, can be harmful to an organism. As blood circulates throughout the body, it picks up carbon dioxide waste from cells and transports it to the lungs, where it is exhaled while fresh oxygen is inhaled. If the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood increases above a certain threshold, the nervous system directs the lungs to increase their respiration rate to remove the excess carbon dioxide, which ensures that the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are maintained at appropriate levels. In this way, the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems work together to limit the level of carbon dioxide in the blood. Nutrient Absorption To absorb nutrients from food, the nervous, digestive, muscular, excretory, and circulatory systems all interact. The nervous system controls the intake of food and regulates the muscular action of chewing, which mechanically breaks down food. As food travels through the stomach and intestines, the digestive system structures release enzymes to stimulate its chemical breakdown. At the same time, the muscular action, called peristalsis, of the muscles in the wall of the stomach help churn the food and push it through the digestive tract. In the intestines, nutrients from food travel across the surfaces of the villi. The nutrients are then picked up by the blood, and the circulatory system transports the nutrients throughout the cells of the body. The endocrine system releases hormones, such as insulin, that control the rate at which certain body cells use nutrients. Any excess minerals, such as calcium, in the blood are deposited in and stored by the skeletal system. Waste products produced by the use of nutrients, as well as the leftover solid waste from the digestion of food, exit the body through the excretory system. Throughout the process of nutrient absorption, the nervous system controls the muscles involved in digestion, circulation, and excretion. Defense Several body systems interact to defend the body from external threats. The body's first line of defense is the integumentary system, which provide a physical barrier that prevents pathogens from entering the body. The skin of the integumentary system also contains receptors for pain, temperature, and pressure. If an unpleasant stimulus is encountered, these receptors send signals to the central nervous system. In response, the central nervous system sends commands to the muscles to move the body part away from the stimulus. In this way, the integumentary, nervous, and muscular systems interact to prevent damage to the body. In the event of a break in the skin, the nervous, immune, lymphatic, and circulatory systems work together to repair the wound and protect the body from pathogens. When the skin is broken, specialized blood cells called platelets form a clot to stop the bleeding. These platelets also release chemicals that travel through the circulatory system and recruit cells, like immune system cells, to repair the wound. These immune cells, or white blood cells, are transported by the circulatory and lymphatic systems to the site of the wound, where they identify and destroy potentially pathogenic cells to prevent an infection. Some lymphocytes, white blood cells produced by the lymphatic system, also produce antibodies to neutralize specific pathogens. All of the white blood cells involved in the body's response were originally produced in the bone marrow of the skeletal system. If an infection does occur

Chapter 11: Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control

Stimulus Control and Generalization in Learning

Chpt. 8: Extinction & Stimulus Control

Unit VII: Stimulus Based Questions

Stimulus Control and Discriminative Stimulus

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.