Results for "bloodstream"

Bloodstream Infections and Infective Endocarditis

Respiratory Physiology: Gases in the Bloodstream

Cell theory organisms are composed of 1+ cells, which are the smallest unit of life, which come from pre-existing cells What do Prokaryotic Cells have? - Cell wall - Plasma Cell membrane -Flagella -Ribosomes -Nucleoid Cell Wall made of of carb protein complex, PEPTIOGLYCAN, allows for cell to hold shape Plasma Membrane Controls movement of materials in and out of cells, plays role in binary fission Cytoplasm -occupies interior, no compartmentalization, site of all chemical processes in the cell -Region where organelles can be found Capsule some, not all have this, made of polysaccharide, sticky and allows for attachment to surfaces Pili short hair growth on cell wall, used for attachment, joins bacteria cells to prep for DNA transfer Flagella longer than pili, used for movement Ribosomes where protein synthesis occurs, in big numbers in cells that require high protein content Nucleoid Region non-compartmentalization and has a single long thread of DNA, controls cells and reproduction Plasmids small circular DNA molecules, not connected to main loop Binary Fission the simple cell division, process where DNA is copied and the daughter chromosomes become attached to different regions on the membrane, cell elongates and divides into 2 identical daughter cells Microscope DOs -careful -proper carrying -using for intended purpose Microscope Don'ts -squinting -carrying with one hand -using coarse focus knob on high power -leaving at edge of lab bench Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells -DNA is circular, not enclosed -Free DNA -Non-membrane bound organelles -70s ribosomes -Very small -Division by binary fission SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO does what? What does this do? Limits cell size, the bigger this ratio, the more efficient it is for the diffusion to take place in and out of the cell. Differentiation process whereby cells develop into specific cells as a result of the expression of certain genes but not others What are stem cells? Cells that retain their ability to divide into various types of cells. What type of tissue in plants contains stem cells? Meristematic tissue. Where are stem cells found in animals? In embryos. Cytosol Fluid portion of cytoplasm What is the endoplasmic reticulum? An extensive network of tubules and channels that extends almost everywhere from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum? Transports materials throughout the internal region of the cell. Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface and is therefore involved in protein development and transport. Smooth ER lacks ribosomes on its exterior but contains unique enzymes embedded on its surface. 6 functions of the smooth ER 1. production of membrane phospholipids and cellular lipids 2. Production of sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen 3. Detoxification of drugs in the liver 4. Storage of calcium ions needed for contraction in muscle cells 5. Transportation of lipid-based compounds 6. Aid the liver in releasing glucose into the bloodstream when needed What are ribosomes? Structures that have no exterior membrane What is the primary function of ribosomes? Carry out protein synthesis What are ribosomes composed of? A type of RNA and a protein How many subunits do ribosomes have? Two subunits What are lysosomes? Intracellular digestive organelles that arise from the Golgi apparatus. What do lysosomes catalyze the breakdown of? Proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Golgi apparatus Responsible for the collection, packaging, modification, and distribution of materials synthesized in the cell Two sides : cis and trans cisternae Golgi apparatus is composed of a stack of flattened sacs called this What shape are mitochondria? Rod-shaped What are mitochondria commonly referred to as? The cell's powerhouse Do mitochondria have their own DNA? Yes, it is similar to that of bacterial cells What type of membrane do mitochondria have? Double-membraned How is the outer membrane of mitochondria described? Smooth What are the folds in the inner membrane of mitochondria called? Cristae matrix Inside the mitochondria inner membrane is fluid called this What is the function of the cristae in mitochondria? The cristae provide a huge internal surface area for the chemical reactions in the mitochondria to occur. What type of ribosomes do mitochondria produce and contain? Mitochondria produce and contain their own ribosomes. What is the primary energy molecule produced by mitochondria? ATP (adenosine triphosphate). What is the nucleus? A compartmentalized region where DNA can be found. What is the nuclear envelope? A double membrane that covers the nucleus. What do the pores in the nuclear envelope allow? Communication with the cell's cytoplasm. What are chloroplasts? Organelles that can only be found in algae and plant cells. What type of membrane do chloroplasts have? Double-membraned. What unique genetic material do chloroplasts contain? Their own ribosomes and DNA in the form of a ring. What structures are found in the interior of chloroplasts? Grana, thylakoids, and the stroma. Granum made up of a stack of thylakoids Thylakoids flattened membrane sacs with components essential for the absorption of light Stroma similar to cytosol; contains many enzymes and chemicals essential to complete the process of photosynthesis What is a centrosome? A structure that consists of a pair of centrioles at right angles to one another. What is the function of centrioles in the centrosome? They are involved in assembling the microtubules necessary for providing structure and movement in the cell. Why are microtubules important for cells? They are necessary for cell division. In which types of cells are centrosomes found? Centrosomes are found in animal, fungal, and most protoctist cells, but not in higher plant cells. What are vacuoles? Storage organelles that usually arise from the Golgi apparatus. What substances do vacuoles store? Potential food, metabolic wastes and toxins, and water. How do vacuoles affect cell size? They allow cells to have a higher surface area to volume ratio even at larger sizes. What role do vacuoles play in plant cells? They allow the uptake of water to provide rigidity to the cell.

Gases in the bloodstream

micro - bloodstream infections

BIOC 503 - Lipoproteins

Chapter 7:6 Study Guide NERVOUS SYSTEM P179-187 Nervous System-complex, highly organized system that coordinates all the activities of the body. *The basic structural unit of the nervous system is the neuron, or nerve cell. It consists of a cell body containing:  Nucleus  Nerve fibers called dendrites (carry impulses toward the cell body)  Single nerve fiber called axon (carry impulses away from the cell body) Many axons have a lipid covering called a myelin sheath, which increases the rate of impulse transmission and insulates and maintains the axon. The axon of one neuron lies close to the dendrites of many other neurons. The spaces between them are known as synapses. Special chemicals, called neurotransmitters, located at the end of each axon allow the nerve impulses to pass from one neuron to another. Nerves are a combination of many nerve fibers located outside the brain and spinal cord. Meninges are membranes or protective lining that covers the brain and spinal cord. Afferent, or sensory, nerves carry messages from all parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord. Efferent, or motor, nerves carry messages from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Associative, or internuncial, nerves carry both sensory and motor messages. There are two main divisions to the nervous system: 1. 2. Central nervous system: consists of the brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: consists of the nerves. A separate division of the peripheral nervous system is the autonomic nervous system. This system controls involuntary body functions. *Brain-mass of nerve tissue well protected by membranes and the cranium, or skull. The main sections include:  Cerebrum-the largest and highest section of the brain. Responsible for: reasoning, thought, memory, speech, sensation, sight, smell, hearing, and voluntary body movement.  Cerebellum-section below the back of the cerebrum. Responsible for: muscle coordination, balance and posture, muscle tone.  Diencephalon-section between the cerebrum and midbrain. o Thalamus-acts as a relay center and directs sensory impulses to the cerebrum. o Hypothalamus-regulates and controls the autonomic nervous system, temperature, appetite, water balance sleep and blood vessel constriction and dilation. Also involved in emotions such as anger, fear, pleasure, pain and affection.  Midbrain-the section located below the cerebrum at the top of the brain stem. Responsible for conducting impulses between brain parts and for certain eye and auditory reflexes.  Pons-located below the midbrain and in the brain stem. Responsible for conducting messages to other parts of the brain; for certain reflex actions including chewing, tasting, and saliva production; and for assisting with respiration.  Medulla oblongata-the lowest part of the brain stem. Connects with the spinal cord and is responsible for regulating heartbeat, respiration, swallowing, coughing, and blood pressure. The spinal cord continues down from the medulla oblongata and ends at the first or second lumbar vertebrae. *The meninges are three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. 1. 2. 3. Dura mater-thick, tough, outer layer Arachnoid membrane-delicate and web like Pia mater-closely attached to the brain and spinal cord and contains blood vessels that nourish the nerve tissue. The brain has four ventricles, hollow spaces that connect with each other and with the space under the arachnoid membrane. The ventricles are filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid circulates continually between the ventricles and through the subarachnoid space. It serves as a shock absorber to protect the brain and spinal cord. It also carries nutrients to some parts of the brain and spinal cord and helps remove metabolic products and wastes. After circulating, it is absorbed into the blood vessels of the dura mater and returned to the bloodstream through special structures called the arachnoid villi. The peripheral nervous system consists of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches and 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches. Some of the cranial nerves are responsible for special senses such as sight, hearing, taste, and smell. The Autonomic nervous system is an important part of the peripheral nervous system. It helps maintain a balance in the involuntary functions of the body and allows the body to react in times of emergency. *There are two divisions to the autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic nervous system: prepares the body in times of emergencies. Prepares the body to act by increasing heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure and slowing activity in the digestive tract. This is known as the fight or flight response. Parasympathetic nervous system: After the emergency, this slows down the heart rate, decreases respirations, lowers blood pressure and increases activity in the digestive tract. Cerebral Palsy is a disturbance in voluntary muscle action and is caused by brain damage. Lack of oxygen to the brain, birth injuries, prenatal rubella, and infections can all cause cerebral palsy. Cerebrovascular Accident or CVA (stroke) occurs when the blood flow to the brain is impaired, resulting in a lack of oxygen and a destruction of brain tissue. CVA includes loss of consciousness; weakness or 1. 2. paralysis on one side of the body (hemiplegia); dizziness; dysphagia (difficulty swallowing); visual disturbances; mental confusion; aphasia (speech and language impairment); and incontinence. When a CVA occurs, immediate care within the first three hours can help prevent brain damage. Treatment with thrombolytic or “clot-busting” drugs such as TPA (tissue plasminogen activator) can dissolve the blood clot and restore blood flow to the brain. Aphasia is a speech or language impairment. There are different types. ALS is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Also called Lou Gehrig’s disease. This is a chronic degenerative neuromuscular disease. The cause is unknown. Carpal tunnel syndrome is a progressive, painful condition of the wrist and hand. It occurs when the median nurse is pinched or compressed. Concussions are traumatic brain injuries, usually from a blow to the head by an accident, injury or fall. The brain slides back/forward and forcefully hits against the skull. Think of it like a bruise on the brain. Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain and is caused by a virus, bacterium, or chemical agent. Epilepsy or seizure syndrome is a brain disorder associated with abnormal electrical impulses in the neurons of the brain. Hydrocephalus is an excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles and, in some cases, the subarachnoid space of the brain. It is usually cause by a congenital (at birth) defect, infection, or tumor that obstructs the flow of cerebrospinal fluid out of the brain. The condition is treated by the surgical implantation of a shunt (tube) between the ventricles and the veins, heart, or abdominal peritoneal cavity to provide for drainage of the excess fluid. Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges of the brain and/or spinal cord and is caused by a bacterium, virus, fungus, or toxins such as lead and arsenic. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, progressive, disabling condition resulting from a degeneration of the myelin sheath in the central nervous system. Neuralgia is nerve pain. Inflammation, pressure, toxins, and other disease cause it. Paralysis usually results from a brain or spinal cord injury that destroys neurons and results in a loss of function and sensation below the level of injury. Hemiplegia is paralysis on side of the body and is caused by a tumor, injury, or CVA. Paraplegia is paralysis in the lower extremities or lower part of the body and is caused by a spinal cord injury. Quadriplegia is paralysis of t harems, legs, and body below the spinal cord injury. Parkinson’s disease is a chronic, progressive condition involving degeneration of brain cells, usually in persons over 50 years of age

Bone & Joint, Bloodstream & Line

24 - Leukocytes. Count and functions of the different leukocyte types. Control of leukopoiesis and leukocyte count in the bloodstream. Immunity.

Bloodstream Infections Clinical Microbiology II

ASSESSMENT OF THE LIVER Anatomic and Physiologic Overview The liver, the largest gland of the body and a major organ, can be considered a chemical factory that manufactures, stores, alters, and excretes a large number of substances involved in metabolism (Hammer & McPhee, 2019; Sanyal, Boyer, Terrault, et al., 2018). The location of the liver is essential because it receives nutrient-rich blood directly from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and then either stores or transforms these nutrients into chemicals that are used elsewhere in the body for metabolic needs. The liver is especially important in the regulation of glucose and protein metabolism. The liver manufactures and secretes bile, which has a major role in the digestion and absorption of fats in the GI tract. The liver removes waste products from the bloodstream and secretes them into the bile. The bile produced by the liver is stored temporarily in the gallbladder until it is needed for digestion, at which time the gallbladder empties and bile enters the intestine (see Fig. 43-1). Anatomy of the Liver The liver is a large, highly vascular organ located behind the ribs in the upper right portion of the abdominal cavity. It weighs between 1200 and 1500 g in the average adult and is divided into four lobes. A thin layer of connective tissue surrounds each lobe, extending into the lobe itself and dividing the liver mass into small, functional units called lobules (Barrett, Barman, Brooks, et al., 2019; Hammer & McPhee, 2019). The circulation of the blood into and out of the liver is of major importance to liver function. The blood that perfuses the liver comes from two sources. Approximately 80% of the blood supply comes from the portal vein, which drains the GI tract and is rich in nutrients but lacks oxygen. The remainder of the blood supply enters by way of the hepatic artery and is rich in oxygen. Terminal branches of these two blood vessels join to form common capillary beds, which constitute the sinusoids of the liver (see Fig. 43-2). Thus, a mixture of venous and arterial blood bathes the hepatocytes (liver cells). The sinusoids empty into venules that occupy the center of each liver lobule and are called the central veins. The central veins join to form the hepatic vein, which constitutes the venous drainage from the liver and empties into the inferior vena cava, close to the diaphragm (Barrett et al., 2019; Hammer & McPhee, 2019; Sanyal et al., 2018). In addition to hepatocytes, phagocytic cells belonging to the reticuloendothelial system are present in the liver. Other organs that contain reticuloendothelial cells are the spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and lungs. In the liver, these cells are called Kupffer cells (Barrett et al., 2019; Hammer & McPhee, 2019). As the most common phagocyte in the human body, their main function is to engulf particulate matter (e.g., bacteria) that enters the liver through the portal blood. The smallest bile ducts, called canaliculi, are located between the lobules of the liver. The canaliculi receive secretions from the hepatocytes and carry them to larger bile ducts, which eventually form the hepatic duct. The hepatic duct from the liver and the cystic duct from the gallbladder join to form the common bile duct, which empties into the small intestine. The sphincter of Oddi, located at the junction where the common bile duct enters the duodenum, controls the flow of bile into the intestine. Figure 43-1 • The liver and biliary system, including the gallbladder and bile ducts. Reprinted with permission from Norris, T. L. (2019). Porth’s pathophysiology: Concepts of altered health states (10th ed., Fig. 38.1). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer. Figure 43-2 • A section of liver lobule showing the location of hepatic veins, hepatic cells, liver sinusoids, and branches of the portal vein and hepatic artery. Functions of the Liver Glucose Metabolism The liver plays a major role in the metabolism of glucose and the regulation of blood glucose concentration. After a meal, glucose is taken up from the portal venous blood by the liver and converted into glycogen, which is stored in the hepatocytes. Subsequently, the glycogen is converted back to glucose through a process called glycogenolysis and is released as needed into the bloodstream to maintain normal levels of blood glucose. However, this process provides a limited amount of glucose. Additional glucose can be synthesized by the liver through a process called gluconeogenesis. For this process, the liver uses amino acids from protein breakdown or lactate produced by exercising muscles. This process occurs in response to hypoglycemia (Barrett et al., 2019; Hammer & McPhee, 2019). Ammonia Conversion The use of amino acids from protein for gluconeogenesis results in the formation of ammonia as a by-product. The liver converts this metabolically generated ammonia into urea. Ammonia produced by bacteria in the intestines is also removed from portal blood for urea synthesis. In this way, the liver converts ammonia, a potential toxin, into urea, a compound that is excreted in the urine (Barrett et al., 2019; Hammer & McPhee, 2019). Protein Metabolism The liver also plays an important role in protein metabolism. It synthesizes almost all of the plasma proteins (except gamma-globulin), including albumin, alpha-globulins and beta-globulins, blood clotting factors, specific transport proteins, and most of the plasma lipoproteins. Vitamin K is required by the liver for synthesis of prothrombin and some of the other clotting factors. Amino acids are used by the liver for protein synthesis (Barrett et al., 2019; Hammer & McPhee, 2019). Fat Metabolism The liver is also active in fat metabolism. Fatty acids can be broken down for the production of energy and ketone bodies (acetoacetic acid, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone). Ketone bodies are small compounds that can enter the bloodstream and provide a source of energy for muscles and other tissues. Breakdown of fatty acids into ketone bodies occurs primarily when the availability of glucose for metabolism is limited, as in starvation or in uncontrolled diabetes. Fatty acids and their metabolic products are also used for the synthesis of cholesterol, lecithin, lipoproteins, and other complex lipids (Hammer & McPhee, 2019; Sanyal et al., 2018). Vitamin and Iron Storage Vitamins A, B, and D and several of the B-complex vitamins are stored in large amounts in the liver. Certain substances, such as iron and copper, are also stored in the liver. Bile Formation Bile is continuously formed by the hepatocytes and collected in the canaliculi and bile ducts. It is composed mainly of water and electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and bicarbonate, and it also contains significant amounts of lecithin, fatty acids, cholesterol, bilirubin, and bile salts. Bile is collected and stored in the gallbladder and is emptied into the intestine as needed for digestion. The functions of bile are excretory, as in the excretion of bilirubin; bile also serves as an aid to digestion through the emulsification of fats by bile salts. Bile salts are synthesized by the hepatocytes from cholesterol. After conjugation or binding with amino acids (taurine and glycine), bile salts are excreted into the bile. The bile salts, together with cholesterol and lecithin, are required for emulsification of fats in the intestine, which is necessary for efficient digestion and absorption. Bile salts are then reabsorbed, primarily in the distal ileum, into portal blood for return to the liver and are again excreted into the bile. This pathway from hepatocytes to bile to intestine and back to the hepatocytes is called the enterohepatic circulation. Because of the enterohepatic circulation, only a small fraction of the bile salts that enter the intestine are excreted in the feces. This decreases the need for active synthesis of bile salts by the liver cells (Hammer & McPhee, 2019). Bilirubin Excretion Bilirubin is a pigment derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin by cells of the reticuloendothelial system, including the Kupffer cells of the liver. Hepatocytes remove bilirubin from the blood and chemically modify it through conjugation to glucuronic acid, which makes the bilirubin more soluble in aqueous solutions. The conjugated bilirubin is secreted by the hepatocytes into the adjacent bile canaliculi and is eventually carried in the bile into the duodenum. p. 1366 p. 1367 In the small intestine, bilirubin is converted into urobilinogen, which is partially excreted in the feces and partially absorbed through the intestinal mucosa into the portal blood. Much of this reabsorbed urobilinogen is removed by the hepatocytes and secreted into the bile once again (enterohepatic circulation). Some of the urobilinogen enters the systemic circulation and is excreted by the kidneys in the urine. Elimination of bilirubin in the bile represents the major route of its excretion. Drug Metabolism The liver metabolizes many medications, such as barbiturates, opioids, sedatives, anesthetics, and amphetamines (Goldman & Schafer, 2019; Hammer & McPhee, 2019; Sanyal et al., 2018). Metabolism generally results in drug inactivation, although activation may also occur. One of the important pathways for medication metabolism involves conjugation (binding) of the medication with a variety of compounds, such as glucuronic acid or acetic acid, to form more soluble substances. These substances may be excreted in the feces or urine, similar to bilirubin excretion. Bioavailability is the fraction of the given medication that actually reaches the systemic circulation. The bioavailability of an oral medication (absorbed from the GI tract) can be decreased if the medication is metabolized to a great extent by the liver before it reaches the systemic circulation; this is known as first-pass effect. Some medications have such a large first-pass effect that their use is essentially limited to the parenteral route, or oral doses must be substantially larger than parenteral doses to achieve the same effect. Gerontologic Considerations Chart 43-1 summarizes age-related changes in the liver. In the older adult, the most common change in the liver is a decrease in size and weight, accompanied by a decrease in total hepatic blood flow. However, in general, these decreases are proportional to the decreases in body size and weight seen in normal aging. Results of liver function tests do not normally change with age; abnormal results in older patients indicate abnormal liver function and are not a result of the aging process itself. Chart 43-1 Age-Related Changes of the Hepatobiliary System •Atypical clinical presentation of biliary disease •Decreases in the following: •Clearance of hepatitis B surface antigen •Drug metabolism and clearance capabilities •Intestinal and portal vein blood flow •Gallbladder contraction after a meal •Rate of replacement and or repair of liver cells after injury •Size and weight of the liver, particularly in women •Increased prevalence of gallstones due to the increase in cholesterol secretion in bile •More rapid progression of hepatitis C infection and lower response rate to therapy •More severe complications of biliary tract disease Adapted from Townsend, C. M., Beauchamp, R. D., Evers, B. M., et al. (2016). Sabiston’s textbook of surgery: The biological basis of modern surgical practice. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier. Metabolism of medications by the liver decreases in the older adult, but such changes are usually accompanied by changes in intestinal absorption, renal excretion, and altered body distribution of some medications secondary to changes in fat deposition. These alterations necessitate careful medication administration and monitoring; if appropriate, reduced dosages may be needed to prevent medication toxicity

Adding substance to bloodstream

Gas Transport in the Bloodstream and Control of Breathing

Week 3 - Bloodstream Infections

Bloodstream Infections - Bacterial and Viral

Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing

05 Bloodstream infections

Chapter 3 - Tissues 1. Introduction Main tissue types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous Functions: Protection, secretion, absorption, connection, movement, information processing Tissue membranes: Epithelial membranes: Mucous, Serous, Cutaneous Connective tissue membranes: Synovial membranes (joints) 2. Types of Tissues Four categories: Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities Connective: Supports, connects, transports Muscle: Enables movement Nervous: Sends and receives signals Embryonic origin: Derived from ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm 3. Epithelial Tissue Characteristics: Closely packed cells, avascular, polarity (apical/basal surfaces), rapid regeneration Cell Junctions: Tight junctions: Barrier function (e.g., intestines) Anchoring junctions: Stability (e.g., skin) Gap junctions: Communication (e.g., heart) Types: Simple (one layer) vs Stratified (multiple layers) Shapes: Squamous (flat), Cuboidal (cube-shaped), Columnar (tall) Specialized types: Pseudostratified: Appears layered but isn’t Transitional: Stretchable (e.g., bladder) Glands: Endocrine (ductless, secretes hormones into bloodstream) Exocrine (ducts, secretes onto surfaces) Modes of secretion: Merocrine: Exocytosis (e.g., sweat glands) Apocrine: Pinched off portion of cell (e.g., mammary glands) Holocrine: Entire cell disintegrates (e.g., sebaceous glands) 4. Connective Tissue Structure: Cells dispersed in extracellular matrix (ground substance + protein fibers) Fiber types: Collagen (strong, flexible) Elastic (stretchy) Reticular (supportive framework) Categories: Proper: Loose (Areolar, Adipose, Reticular) Dense (Regular, Irregular, Elastic) Supportive: Cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage) Bone (osteocytes in lacunae, vascularized) Fluid: Blood (RBCs, WBCs, plasma) Lymph (immune function) Functions: Structural support, transport, immune defense, energy storage 5. Muscle Tissue Properties: Excitable, contractile Types: Skeletal: Striated, voluntary, attached to bones Cardiac: Striated, involuntary, heart muscle (intercalated discs) Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary (digestive, respiratory, reproductive systems) 6. Nervous Tissue Function: Conducts electrical impulses, processes information Cell types: Neurons: Transmit signals (axon, dendrites) Neuroglia: Support, protect, nourish neurons 7

Ch 35 Endocrine Key Points • The principal endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, thymus. • The endocrine system alters chemical reactions and controls the rate at which chemical activities take place within cells. • Any type of dysfunction of the pituitary gland will affect one or more of the hormones and their target organs. • The thyroid gland secretes the hormones thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and thyrocalcitonin. • Parathormone is a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that acts on the renal tubules to increase the excretion of phosphorus in the urine and to stimulate the reabsorption of calcium; it also stimulates the production of the active form of vitamin D, which enhances calcium absorption in the small intestine and acts on bone, causing the release of calcium from the bone into the bloodstream. • The adrenal medulla (middle portion) secretes two hormones—epinephrine and norepinephrine (called catecholamines)—in response to stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system. • T he two major types of hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are the mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) and the glucocorticoids (cortisol). • The beta cells are responsible for producing and secreting insulin, while the alpha cells release glucagon. • Age-related changes in the endocrine system include the pituitary gland becoming smaller, the thyroid becoming more lumpy or nodular, increases and decreases in different hormones, and increases in blood glucose levels. • The endocrine system regulates metabolism, growth and development, sexual function, reproductive processes. • The secretion of a particular hormone normally depends on the need. • Endocrine disorders are caused by an imbalance in the production of hormone or by an alteration in the body’s ability to use the hormones produced. • Goiter, an overgrowth of the thyroid, may be prevented by sufficient intake of iodine. • Tests of the endocrine system are performed on blood samples; on urine samples; or by scans, ultrasounds, radiographs, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). • According to the 2020 American Diabetes Association guidelines, diagnosis of diabetes mellitus is based on one of four abnormalities: (1) Symptoms of diabetes mellitus plus a random glucose level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL; (2) a fasting glucose level greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL; (3) a hemoglobin A1c level greater than 6.5%; and (4) a glucose tolerance test revealing a postprandial glucose greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL, 2 hours after 75 g of glucose is administered. • A full physical assessment and history are needed to evaluate a patient who is possibly experiencing an endocrine disorder. • An example of a problem statement for someone with an endocrine disorder is as follows: Altered fluid volume caused by increased urine output (DI, Hyperthyroidism, AD). An example of an expected outcome would be as follows: Patient will display a balance between intake and output. • Planning care for a patient with an endocrine disorder will depend on the type of disorder the patient has. Stress has a direct effect on endocrine function. Therefore, measures to help the patient decrease stress should be planned. • Evaluation is accomplished by determining whether symptoms are resolving and by laboratory testing to determine whether treatment of the endocrine problem is effective

Digestion Notes (Biology 12) I. Introduction/Overview • Digestion: Breakdown of food into small, soluble molecules • Occurs physically and chemically • Absorption: The process of taking specific compounds into the body • Elimination: Expulsion of materials not absorbed into the body • Excretion: Removal of waste from metabolic processes II. Location of Parts and Function A. Teeth • Type of teeth depends on diet: • Carnivores: Sharp teeth for grasping prey and severing meat • Herbivores: Flat teeth for crushing plant fibers • Omnivores: A combination of tooth types for eating both meat and plants • Structure: • Enamel: Hard outer layer • Dentin: Bony layer under enamel • Pulp: Living part of the tooth (contains nerves and blood vessels) • Teeth are embedded in sockets in the jaw B. Tongue • Functions: • Taste: Detects salt, sour, sweet, and bitter flavors • Positioning food for chewing C. Salivary Glands • Three pairs: • Parotid (side of face; swells with mumps) • Sublingual (under tongue) • Submandibular (lower jaw) • Produce saliva, which contains enzymes for digestion D. Palates • Located at the top of the mouth • Hard palate: Front, separates the mouth from the nasal cavity • Soft palate: Back, ends in the uvula E. Pharynx • Area between mouth and esophagus • Used for both breathing and eating • Epiglottis: Closes over the glottis when swallowing to prevent choking F. Esophagus • Muscular tube that pushes food into the stomach using peristalsis • Composed of five tissue layers: 1. Mucosa (epithelial lining) 2. Submucosa (connective tissue) 3. Muscularis (two muscle layers: circular and longitudinal) 4. Serosa (outer epithelial layer; secretes fluid for lubrication) G. Cardiac Sphincter • Muscle at the junction of the esophagus and stomach • Opens to allow food into the stomach H. Stomach • J-shaped organ, located left of the body’s center • Capacity: About 1 liter • Inner lining contains gastric glands: • Parietal cells → Produce HCl • Chief cells → Produce pepsinogen, activated by HCl into pepsin • Epithelial cells → Produce mucus (protects stomach lining) • Functions: • Storage of food (empties in 2-6 hours) • Digestion using pepsin and salivary amylase • Absorption of water, ethanol • Regulation of pepsin production by the hormone gastrin I. Pyloric Sphincter • Muscle at the junction of the stomach and small intestine • Opens to allow chyme (partially digested food) into the small intestine J. Small Intestine • Length: ~ 3 meters (10 feet) • Highly convoluted to increase surface area for absorption • Interior folds covered with villi (tiny projections that increase surface area) • Divided into three parts: 1. Duodenum (first 25 cm): Produces lactase, peptidase, maltase, nuclease 2. Jejunum 3. Ileum • Functions: • Completes digestion • Absorbs nutrients into the bloodstream K. Liver • Largest organ in the body • Monitors blood composition via the hepatic portal vein L. Pancreas • Produces pancreatic juice (digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid) • Produces insulin (regulates blood glucose) M. Ileo-Caecal Opening • Joins the small intestine to the large intestine N. Caecum • Blind pouch at the end of the small intestine • No function in humans (vestigial), but in herbivores, it helps digest cellulose O. Large Intestine • Parts: 1. Ascending colon 2. Transverse colon 3. Descending colon 4. Rectum (stores feces) 5. Anus (controls feces release) • Functions: • Reabsorbs water (~95% of 10L daily intake) • Forms feces • Produces vitamins B and K using E. coli bacteria III. Digestive Enzymes Enzyme Source pH Digested Food Product Salivary Amylase Salivary Glands 7 Starch Maltose Pepsin Stomach 2 Protein Peptides Pancreatic Amylase Pancreas Basic Starch Maltose Trypsin Pancreas Basic Protein Peptides Lipase Pancreas Basic Fat Glycerol & Fatty Acids Peptidases Small Intestine Basic Peptides Amino Acids Maltase Small Intestine Basic Maltose Glucose Nuclease Pancreas Basic DNA/RNA Nucleotides IV. Swallowing and Peristalsis • Swallowing: Food forms a bolus (food ball) and is moved down the esophagus • Peristalsis: Rhythmic contractions of smooth muscle that push food through the digestive tract V. The 7 Functions of the Liver 1. Detoxifies harmful substances (e.g., alcohol) 2. Stores glucose as glycogen 3. Destroys old red blood cells (recycling heme into bile) 4. Produces urea from amino acid breakdown 5. Makes blood proteins 6. Stores iron and vitamins A, D, E, K 7. Converts amino acids to glucose if needed (gluconeogenesis) VI. Digestive Juices & Hormones Gastric Juice (Stomach) • Contains HCl, pepsinogen (activated into pepsin), and mucus • Helps digest proteins into peptides Pancreatic Juice • Contains sodium bicarbonate (neutralizes acid) • Enzymes: Pancreatic amylase, trypsin, lipase, nuclease Bile (Liver & Gallbladder) • Breaks down fats into small droplets for lipase to act on VII. Control of Digestive Gland Secretions • Nervous Reflex: Presence of food triggers digestion • Conditioned Reflex: External stimuli (e.g