Results for "acetylcholine"

PDA Lecture 22: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Inhibitors

Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis Endocrine System 1. What are hormones and what is their function in the body? Hormones are chemical messengers transported in the bloodstream that stimulate physiological responses in target cells or organs. 2. Types of hormones based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing. • Kussmaul: Deep, rapid (from acidosis based on chemical composition and how they enter target cells: • Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, diffuse through cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). • Protein/Peptide hormones: Water-soluble, bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin). • Biogenic/Monoamines: Derived from amino acids (e.g., T3/T4), may need carriers or membrane receptors. 3. Know all 6 hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and their functions: • TSH: Stimulates thyroid to release T3 and T4. • ACTH: Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol. • GH: Stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis. • PRL: Stimulates milk production. • FSH: Stimulates egg maturation/sperm production. • LH: Triggers ovulation and testosterone production. 4. What is thymosin? Which gland secretes it? What is its function? Thymosin is secreted by the thymus and helps in the development and maturation of T-cells. 5. Know thyroid gland hormones, the cells that secrete them, and their functions: • T3 & T4 (follicular cells): Increase metabolism and regulate appetite. • Calcitonin (C cells): Lowers blood calcium levels. 6. Know the hormones secreted by the adrenal gland and their specific functions: • Cortex: • Aldosterone: Retains Na⁺, excretes K⁺, raises blood pressure. • Cortisol: Increases glucose, metabolism of fat/protein. • Androgens: Precursor to sex hormones. • Medulla: • Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Increase heart rate, blood flow, and alertness. 7. Function of glucagon and insulin in maintaining homeostasis: • Insulin (beta cells): Lowers blood glucose. • Glucagon (alpha cells): Raises blood glucose. • Antagonistic: They have opposing effects to balance blood sugar levels. 8. Which cells are involved in spermatogenesis? Where does sperm production occur? • Sertoli (Sustentacular) cells support spermatogenesis. • Leydig (Interstitial) cells produce testosterone. • Occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. 9. Know the hormones secreted by the testes and their functions: • Testosterone: Stimulates male development and sperm production. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH to regulate sperm production. 10. What causes diabetes insipidus? How is it different from diabetes mellitus? • Diabetes insipidus: ADH deficiency → excessive urination. • Diabetes mellitus: Insulin issues → high blood glucose. 11. Know the 3 “P’s” of diabetes: • Polyuria: Excessive urination. • Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. • Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. 12. How are oxytocin and prolactin different? • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown. • Prolactin: Stimulates milk production. 13. Name the ovarian hormones and their functions: • Estrogen/Progesterone: Regulate cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics. • Inhibin: Inhibits FSH secretion. ⸻ Muscle Physiology 14. Know 3 muscle types, their locations, and function: • Skeletal: Attached to bones; movement; voluntary. • Cardiac: Heart; pumps blood; involuntary. • Smooth: Organs/vessels; propels substances; involuntary. 15. Know the layers surrounding muscle: • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle. • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicle (bundle). • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fiber. 16. What is a fascicle? A bundle of muscle fibers. 17. What is a sarcomere? Name its regions: Smallest contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc). • Z-band, A-band (dark), I-band (light), H-zone. 18. What are actin and myosin? • Actin: Thin filament. • Myosin: Thick filament that pulls actin during contraction. 19. What is troponin and tropomyosin? • Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin. • Troponin binds Ca²⁺ to move tropomyosin and expose sites. 20. What is a motor unit? A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls. 21. Role of T-Tubule, SR, Terminal Cisternae: • T-Tubule: Conducts AP into cell. • SR: Stores calcium. • Terminal cisternae: Release calcium. 22. Which neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction? Acetylcholine (ACh). 23. What role does Ca²⁺ play in muscle physiology? Binds troponin, moves tropomyosin, exposes actin sites. 24. What happens to Ca²⁺ after action potential ends? Reabsorbed into SR by Ca²⁺ ATPase pump. 25. What is the function of ATP in muscle physiology? Powers myosin movement, detachment, and Ca²⁺ reuptake. 26. What is sliding filament theory? Myosin pulls actin filaments → sarcomere shortens → contraction. 27. What are DHP and Ryanodine receptors and their roles? • DHP: Voltage sensor in T-tubule. • Ryanodine: Releases Ca²⁺ from SR. 28. What is the function of AChE? Breaks down ACh to stop stimulation and contraction. 29. Difference between isotonic and isometric contractions: • Isotonic: Muscle changes length (shortens/lengthens). • Isometric: Muscle length stays same; tension builds. ⸻ Respiratory Physiology 30. Difference between conductive and respiratory divisions: • Conductive: Air passageways (nose to bronchioles). • Respiratory: Gas exchange (alveoli). 31. Type I & II alveolar cells and functions: • Type I: Gas exchange. • Type II: Secretes surfactant, repairs alveoli. 32. Dust cells and their functions: Alveolar macrophages that clean up particles/debris. 33. Muscles in relaxed vs. forced respiration: • Relaxed inhale: Diaphragm, external intercostals. • Forced inhale: Accessory neck muscles. • Forced exhale: Internal intercostals, abdominals. 34. What happens to pressure and volume when inhaling/exhaling? • Inhale: Volume ↑, pressure ↓. • Exhale: Volume ↓, pressure ↑. 35. Difference between systemic and pulmonary exchange: • Systemic: Gas exchange at tissues. • Pulmonary: Gas exchange in lungs. 36. What cells are involved in carrying gases? Red blood cells (RBCs). 37. Which enzyme converts CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃? Carbonic anhydrase. 38. What does carbonic acid break into? H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion). 39. What happens in hypoxia (low oxygen)? • ↓O₂, ↑CO₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 40. What happens in hypercapnia (high CO₂)? • ↑CO₂, ↓O₂, ↓pH (acidosis). 41. Receptors for blood pH and their locations: • Central (CSF pH): Medulla oblongata. • Peripheral (O₂, CO₂, pH): Carotid & aortic bodies. 42. CO₂ loading & O₂ unloading at tissues: • CO₂ enters blood → forms HCO₃⁻. • O₂ released to tissues. 43. CO₂ unloading & O₂ loading at alveoli: • CO₂ released from blood to lungs. • O₂ binds to hemoglobin. 44. Brain part for unconscious breathing: Medulla oblongata. 45. Obstructive vs. restrictive disorders + example: • Obstructive: Narrowed airways (asthma). • Restrictive: Reduced lung expansion (fibrosis). 46. Know spirometry volumes (not numbers): • Tidal volume, • Inspiratory/Expiratory reserve volume, • Residual volume, • Vital capacity, • Total lung capacity, • Inspiratory capacity, • Functional residual capacity. 47. Define eupnea, dyspnea, tachypnea, apnea, Kussmaul respiration: • Eupnea: Normal breathing. • Dyspnea: Labored breathing. • Tachypnea: Rapid, shallow breathing. • Apnea: No breathing

Cholinergic Agonists and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors

Order the molecular events required for the propagation of an action potential beginning with acetylcholine release from the presynaptic cell

Acetylcholine

DBM - Chapter 7 - Acetylcholine

AChEIs (Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors)

1. Functions of Muscles: • Movement: Muscles contract to produce movement in the body, such as walking, running, or even facial expressions. • Posture and Stability: Muscles help maintain posture and stabilize joints, preventing falls or loss of balance. • Heat Production: Muscle contractions generate heat, which is vital for maintaining body temperature. • Protection of Internal Organs: Muscles, particularly in the abdominal region, protect internal organs from injury. • Circulation of Blood and Lymph: Cardiac and smooth muscles play roles in circulating blood and lymph throughout the body. 2. Characteristics of Muscles: • Excitability (Responsiveness): Muscles can respond to stimuli (like nerve signals). • Contractility: Muscles can contract or shorten when stimulated. • Extensibility: Muscles can be stretched without damage. • Elasticity: Muscles can return to their original shape after being stretched or contracted. 3. Locations of Smooth, Cardiac, and Skeletal Muscle: • Smooth Muscle: Found in walls of internal organs (e.g., stomach, intestines, blood vessels). • Cardiac Muscle: Found only in the heart. • Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones and responsible for voluntary movements. 4. Events of Skeletal Muscle Contraction: 1. Nerve Impulse: A signal is sent from a motor neuron to the muscle. 2. Release of Acetylcholine: The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is released into the neuromuscular junction. 3. Muscle Fiber Activation: Acetylcholine stimulates muscle fibers, causing an action potential. 4. Calcium Release: The action potential triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 5. Cross-Bridge Formation: Calcium binds to troponin, moving tropomyosin, which allows myosin heads to attach to actin. 6. Power Stroke: Myosin heads pull actin filaments inward, causing the muscle to contract. 7. Relaxation: ATP breaks the cross-bridge, and the muscle relaxes when calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 5. Isometric vs. Isotonic Contractions: • Isometric Contraction: The muscle generates tension without changing its length (e.g., holding a weight in a fixed position). • Isotonic Contraction: The muscle changes length while generating tension (e.g., lifting a weight). 6. Primary Functions of the Skeletal System: • Support: Provides structural support for the body. • Protection: Shields vital organs (e.g., brain, heart, lungs). • Movement: Works with muscles to allow movement. • Mineral Storage: Stores minerals like calcium and phosphorus. • Blood Cell Production: Bone marrow produces blood cells. • Energy Storage: Fat is stored in bone cavities. 7. Parts of a Long Bone: • Diaphysis: The shaft of the bone. • Epiphysis: The ends of the bone. • Metaphysis: Region between the diaphysis and epiphysis. • Medullary Cavity: Hollow cavity inside the diaphysis, containing bone marrow. • Periosteum: Outer membrane covering the bone. • Endosteum: Inner lining of the medullary cavity. 8. Inner and Outer Connective Tissue Linings of a Bone: • Outer: Periosteum. • Inner: Endosteum. 9. Structure of a Flat Bone: • Compact Bone: Dense bone found on the outside. • Spongy Bone: Lighter, less dense bone found inside, filled with red or yellow marrow. • No medullary cavity (unlike long bones). 10. Parts of the Osteon: • Central Canal (Haversian Canal): Contains blood vessels and nerves. • Lamellae: Concentric layers of bone matrix surrounding the central canal. • Lacunae: Small spaces containing osteocytes (bone cells). • Canaliculi: Small channels that connect lacunae and allow for nutrient exchange. 11. How Calcitonin, Calcitriol, and PTH Affect Blood Calcium: • Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity (bone resorption). • Calcitriol: Increases blood calcium by promoting calcium absorption in the intestines and bone resorption. • PTH (Parathyroid Hormone): Raises blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts to break down bone and release calcium. 12. Two Forms of Ossification: • Intramembranous Ossification: Bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue (e.g., flat bones of the skull). • Endochondral Ossification: Bone replaces a cartilage model (e.g., long bones). 13. Difference Between Appositional and Interstitial Growth: • Appositional Growth: Increase in bone diameter (growth at the surface). • Interstitial Growth: Increase in bone length (growth from within). 14. Different Joint Types: • Fibrous Joints: Connected by fibrous tissue (e.g., sutures of the skull). • Cartilaginous Joints: Connected by cartilage (e.g., intervertebral discs). • Synovial Joints: Have a fluid-filled joint cavity (e.g., knee, elbow). 15. Components of a Synovial Joint: • Articular Cartilage: Covers the ends of bones. • Synovial Membrane: Lines the joint capsule and produces synovial fluid. • Joint Capsule: Surrounds the joint, providing stability. • Ligaments: Connect bones to other bones. • Synovial Fluid: Lubricates the joint. 16. Hinge Joint Location: • Found in the elbow and knee. 17. Pivot Joint Location: • Found between the first and second cervical vertebrae (atlantoaxial joint). 18. Difference Between a Tendon and a Ligament: • Tendon: Connects muscle to bone. • Ligament: Connects bone to bone. 19. What is a Bursa? • A fluid-filled sac that reduces friction and cushions pressure points between the skin and bones or muscles and bones. 20. Three Types of Arthritis: • Osteoarthritis: Degeneration of joint cartilage and underlying bone, often due to wear and tear. • Rheumatoid Arthritis: Autoimmune disease causing inflammation in joints. • Gout: Caused by the accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints. 21. Strain vs. Sprain: • A strain is damage to a muscle or tendon, whereas a sprain is damage to a ligament

Pyridostigmine (Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors)

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors in Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

acetylcholine

CNS Stimulants ADHD Medications Amphetamine (Adderall, Dexedrine) Mechanism of Action: Stimulates excitatory neurons, increases dopamine & norepinephrine. Indications: ADHD, narcolepsy. Adverse Effects: Increased HR/BP, anxiety, tremor, insomnia, headache, decreased appetite, GI distress, dry mouth. Contraindications: Cardiac abnormalities, hypertension, anxiety, agitation, glaucoma, MAOI use (within 14 days). Nursing Implications: Administer 4-6 hours before bedtime. Take on an empty stomach. Monitor BP, pulse, weight, growth patterns in children. Avoid abrupt withdrawal. Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta) Mechanism of Action: CNS stimulant affecting dopamine reuptake. Indications: ADHD, narcolepsy. Adverse Effects: Same as amphetamines. Nursing Implications: Same as amphetamines. Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse) Mechanism of Action: Converted into dextroamphetamine. Indications: ADHD, binge-eating disorder. Nursing Implications: Similar to amphetamines. Atomoxetine (Strattera) Mechanism of Action: Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Indications: ADHD (children >6 and adults). Adverse Effects: Lower abuse potential, less insomnia, but Black Box Warning for suicidal thoughts. Nursing Implications: Monitor mental health for suicidal ideation. Narcolepsy Medications Modafinil (Provigil) Mechanism of Action: Low abuse potential stimulant. Indications: Narcolepsy, shift work sleep disorder. Nursing Implications: Monitor BP & mental health. Antimigraine Medications Rizatriptan (Maxalt), Sumatriptan (Imitrex) Mechanism of Action: Serotonin receptor agonist, causing vasoconstriction. Indications: Acute migraine treatment. Adverse Effects: Tingling, flushing, chest tightness, rebound headaches if overused. Contraindications: Cardiovascular disease, hypertension, glaucoma. Nursing Implications: Administer at first sign of migraine. Avoid triggers. Monitor cardiac history. Endocrine Medications Pituitary Medications Somatropin (Humotrope) Mechanism of Action: Growth hormone replacement. Indications: Growth failure (hypopituitarism, HIV wasting). Adverse Effects: Hyperglycemia, hypothyroidism, injection site reactions. Nursing Implications: Monitor growth, motor skills, thyroid, and glucose levels. Rotate injection sites. Octreotide (Sandostatin) Mechanism of Action: GH antagonist. Indications: Acromegaly, GH-producing tumors. Adverse Effects: GI distress, glucose changes, cardiac conduction issues. Nursing Implications: Monitor glucose, EKG, growth. ADH Medications Vasopressin (Pitressin) & Desmopressin (DDAVP) Mechanism of Action: Mimics ADH. Indications: Vasopressin: Hypotension, hemorrhage. Desmopressin: Diabetes insipidus, bedwetting. Adverse Effects: Increased BP, headache, GI distress. Nursing Implications: Monitor VS, urine output, cardiac status. Thyroid Medications Levothyroxine (Synthroid) Mechanism of Action: Synthetic T4. Indications: Hypothyroidism. Adverse Effects: Hyperthyroid symptoms. Nursing Implications: Administer before breakfast on an empty stomach. Monitor thyroid labs (TSH, T3, T4). Avoid iodine-rich foods, iron/calcium supplements. Propylthiouracil (PTU) Mechanism of Action: Inhibits thyroid hormone production. Indications: Hyperthyroidism, thyroid storm. Adverse Effects: GI distress, bone marrow suppression. Nursing Implications: Monitor thyroid levels & CBC. Avoid iodine-rich foods. Radioactive Iodine (I-131) Mechanism of Action: Destroys thyroid tissue. Indications: Hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancer. Adverse Effects: Radiation sickness, Pregnancy Category X. Nursing Implications: Radiation precautions: Avoid close contact, use separate utensils, increase fluids. Adrenal Medications Glucocorticoids Hydrocortisone (Solu-Cortef), Prednisone (Deltasone), Dexamethasone (Decadron), Methylprednisolone (Solu-Medrol) Mechanism of Action: Anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressant. Indications: Adrenal insufficiency, inflammatory/autoimmune diseases. Adverse Effects: Metabolic: Hyperglycemia, weight gain, Cushing’s syndrome. Musculoskeletal: Osteoporosis, muscle wasting. CV: Hypertension, edema. Neuro: Mood swings, insomnia. Nursing Implications: Administer in the morning with food. Taper off slowly to prevent adrenal crisis. Monitor glucose levels with long-term use. Avoid sick contacts due to immune suppression. Mineralocorticoids Fludrocortisone (Florinef) Mechanism of Action: Mimics aldosterone (Na & water retention). Indications: Addison’s disease, adrenal insufficiency. Adverse Effects: Hypertension, hypokalemia, edema. Nursing Implications: Monitor BP, electrolytes (Na, K). Immunosuppressants Cyclosporine (Sandimmune), Tacrolimus (Prograf) Mechanism of Action: Suppresses immune response. Indications: Organ transplant, autoimmune diseases. Adverse Effects: Increased risk for infections, nephrotoxicity, diabetes. Nursing Implications: Strict dosing schedule (same time every day). Avoid grapefruit juice & styrofoam cups. No live vaccines (MMR, Varicella, Smallpox). Report any signs of infection immediately. Lifespan Considerations Pediatrics: Monitor growth in children using ADHD meds & growth hormones. Pregnancy: Avoid radioactive iodine (I-131) & immunosuppressants. Elderly: Caution with stimulants & corticosteroids (risk of cardiac issues, osteoporosis). Patient Teaching CNS Stimulants: Avoid abrupt withdrawal. Monitor growth (children). Thyroid Meds: Take levothyroxine on an empty stomach. Avoid iodine-rich foods if on PTU. Corticosteroids: Taper off gradually. Monitor glucose, avoid infections. Immunosuppressants: No live vaccines. Strict dosing schedule. Insulins Rapid-acting Insulins (Insulin lispro - Humalog, Insulin aspart - Novolog) Mechanism of Action: Fast-acting insulin that mimics natural insulin secretion in response to meals. Indications: Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes. Adverse Effects: Hypoglycemia, weight gain, lipodystrophy at injection sites. Nursing Implications: Must eat a meal after injection. Administer subcutaneously (SQ) or via infusion pump. Clear, colorless solution. Short-acting Insulin (Regular insulin - Humulin R) Mechanism of Action: Provides short-term glucose control. Indications: Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes. Adverse Effects: Hypoglycemia, weight gain. Nursing Implications: Onset: 30-60 min, Peak: 2.5 hr, Duration: 6-10 hr. Can be administered IV, IM, or SQ. Clear, colorless solution. Intermediate-acting Insulin (NPH - Isophane insulin suspension) Mechanism of Action: Delayed onset but prolonged glucose control. Indications: Often combined with regular insulin for Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes. Adverse Effects: Hypoglycemia, weight gain. Nursing Implications: Onset: 1-2 hr, Peak: 4-8 hr, Duration: 10-18 hr. Cloudy suspension, administered SQ. Usually given twice daily before meals. Long-acting Insulins (Insulin glargine - Lantus, Insulin detemir - Levemir) Mechanism of Action: Provides basal insulin coverage with no peak effect. Indications: Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes. Adverse Effects: Hypoglycemia (less risk), weight gain. Nursing Implications: Onset: 1-2 hr, No peak, Duration: 24 hr. DO NOT mix with other insulins. Clear, colorless solution. Oral Antidiabetics Biguanides (Metformin - Glucophage) Mechanism of Action: Decreases hepatic glucose production & increases insulin sensitivity. Indications: First-line treatment for Type 2 Diabetes. Adverse Effects: GI discomfort, diarrhea, metallic taste, reduced B12 levels. Black Box Warning: Risk of lactic acidosis (especially in renal failure). Nursing Implications: Administer 30 min before meals. Hold if contrast dye is used (renal failure risk). Sulfonylureas (Glipizide - Glucotrol) Mechanism of Action: Stimulates pancreatic insulin release. Indications: Type 2 Diabetes (early stages). Adverse Effects: Hypoglycemia, weight gain, nausea. Contraindications: Sulfa allergy. Nursing Implications: Give 30 min before meals. Monitor for hypoglycemia. Glinides (Repaglinide - Prandin) Mechanism of Action: Increases insulin secretion from beta cells. Indications: Type 2 Diabetes (postprandial glucose control). Adverse Effects: Hypoglycemia, weight gain. Black Box Warning: May exacerbate heart failure. Nursing Implications: Take with each meal, skip if meal is skipped. Glitazones (Pioglitazone - Actos) Mechanism of Action: Improves insulin sensitivity. Indications: Type 2 Diabetes (often combined with metformin or sulfonylureas). Adverse Effects: Fluid retention, weight gain, fractures. Black Box Warning: May exacerbate heart failure. Nursing Implications: Weigh daily. Monitor for heart failure signs. Alpha-glucosidase Inhibitors (Acarbose - Precose) Mechanism of Action: Delays carbohydrate absorption. Indications: Type 2 Diabetes (postprandial glucose control). Adverse Effects: GI issues (flatulence, diarrhea). Contraindications: GI disorders (IBD, malabsorption). Nursing Implications: Take with first bite of meal. DPP-4 Inhibitors (Gliptins) (Sitagliptin - Januvia) Mechanism of Action: Enhances incretin hormone function. Indications: Adjunct to diet/exercise in Type 2 Diabetes. Adverse Effects: URI, headache, diarrhea. Nursing Implications: Take once daily, with or without food. SGLT-2 Inhibitors (Canagliflozin - Invokana) Mechanism of Action: Inhibits glucose reabsorption in kidneys. Indications: Type 2 Diabetes (weight loss benefit). Adverse Effects: UTIs, yeast infections, dehydration, ketoacidosis. Nursing Implications: Take once daily before breakfast. Injectable Non-Insulin Medications Amylin Agonists (Pramlintide - Symlin) Mechanism of Action: Slows gastric emptying, suppresses glucagon. Indications: Type 1 & Type 2 Diabetes. Adverse Effects: Nausea, vomiting, anorexia. Contraindications: Gastroparesis. Nursing Implications: Inject before meals. Take at least 1 hr before oral meds. Incretin Mimetics (Exenatide - Byetta) Mechanism of Action: Enhances insulin secretion. Indications: Type 2 Diabetes (used when oral meds fail). Adverse Effects: GI symptoms, weight loss, thyroid tumors (Black Box Warning). Nursing Implications: Administer SQ 1 hr before meals. Glucose-Elevating Agents Glucagon Indications: Severe hypoglycemia. Adverse Effects: Vomiting (turn patient on side). Nursing Implications: Used when patient cannot take oral glucose. Dextrose 50% in Water (D50W) Indications: Emergency treatment of hypoglycemia. Nursing Implications: Administer IV. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) Salicylates (Aspirin - ASA) Mechanism of Action: COX-1 & COX-2 inhibitor, antiplatelet. Indications: Pain, fever, inflammation, CV prevention. Adverse Effects: GI bleeding, Reye’s syndrome in children. Nursing Implications: Do not give to children with viral infections. Acetic Acid Derivative (Ketorolac - Toradol) Indications: Short-term pain management (up to 5 days). Adverse Effects: Renal impairment, GI distress. COX-2 Inhibitor (Celecoxib - Celebrex) Indications: Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis. Adverse Effects: CV risk (Black Box Warning). Contraindications: Sulfa allergy. Propionic Acid Derivatives (Ibuprofen, Naproxen) Indications: Pain, inflammation, fever. Adverse Effects: GI distress, bleeding risk. Antigout Medications Allopurinol (Zyloprim) Mechanism of Action: Reduces uric acid production. Indications: Chronic gout prevention. Adverse Effects: Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Nursing Implications: Take with food. Colchicine (Colcrys) Mechanism of Action: Reduces inflammatory response. Indications: Acute gout attack. Adverse Effects: GI distress, bleeding risk. Nursing Implications: Hydration (3L/day). Immunizations Active Immunizing Drugs Mechanism of Action: Stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against specific pathogens, offering long-term immunity. Indications: Prevention of infectious diseases. Adverse Effects: Common: Soreness, fever, mild rash. Severe: Fever >103°F, encephalitis, convulsions, anaphylaxis. Contraindications: Immunocompromised patients, pregnancy (some vaccines), active infections. Nursing Implications: Assess medical history, immune status, and pregnancy. Administer vaccines at appropriate sites: Infants: Mid-lateral thigh. Older children/adults: Deltoid muscle. Use warm compresses, Tylenol for mild reactions. Report severe reactions to VAERS (Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System). Examples of Active Immunizations: Diphtheria, tetanus toxoids, acellular pertussis (DTaP, Td): Prevents diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib): Prevents bacterial infections, especially in children. Hepatitis B vaccine: Prevents Hep B infection. Influenza vaccine: Annual vaccine for flu prevention. Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR): Prevents viral infections. Pneumococcal vaccine: Protects against pneumococcal infections (pneumonia, meningitis). Poliovirus vaccine (IPV): Prevents poliomyelitis. Rabies vaccine: Given for rabies exposure or pre-exposure prophylaxis. Human papillomavirus (HPV - Gardasil): Prevents HPV-related cancers. Herpes zoster (Zostavax, Shingrix): Protects against shingles. Varicella vaccine: Prevents chickenpox. Passive Immunizing Drugs Mechanism of Action: Provides preformed antibodies for immediate protection; temporary immunity. Indications: Post-exposure prophylaxis in high-risk patients. Examples: Hepatitis B immunoglobulin: Post-exposure protection for Hepatitis B. Immunoglobulin: General immune support. Rabies immunoglobulin: Post-exposure prophylaxis after animal bites. Tetanus immunoglobulin: Used in unvaccinated individuals exposed to tetanus. Dermatologic Medications Antibacterials Bacitracin Mechanism of Action: Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis. Indications: Minor skin infections. Adverse Effects: Burning, itching. Neomycin & Polymyxin B (Neosporin) Mechanism of Action: Broad-spectrum antibacterial. Indications: Minor wounds. Adverse Effects: Local irritation. Mupirocin (Bactroban) Indications: Topical: Treats impetigo (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus infections). Intranasal: Used for MRSA colonization. Adverse Effects: Burning, itching. Silver Sulfadiazine (Silvadene) Mechanism of Action: Acts on bacterial cell wall. Indications: Burn treatment (prevention of infection). Adverse Effects: Pain, burning, contraindicated in sulfa allergy. Antiacne Medications Benzoyl Peroxide Mechanism of Action: Releases oxygen, killing acne bacteria. Indications: Mild to moderate acne. Adverse Effects: Red, peeling skin, warmth. Tretinoin (Retin-A) Mechanism of Action: Vitamin A derivative, stimulates cell turnover. Indications: Acne, UV damage. Adverse Effects: Skin peeling, severe sunburn risk (use sunscreen). Isotretinoin (Accutane) Mechanism of Action: Sebaceous gland suppression. Indications: Severe cystic acne. Adverse Effects: Teratogenic (Pregnancy Category X), liver toxicity, mood changes. Black Box Warning: IPLEDGE Program (2 contraceptive methods required). Antifungals Clotrimazole (Lotrimin) Mechanism of Action: Inhibits fungal growth. Indications: Athlete’s foot, ringworm, yeast infections. Adverse Effects: Local irritation. Miconazole (Monistat) Mechanism of Action: Antifungal, some Gram-positive action. Indications: Yeast infections, jock itch, athlete’s foot. Adverse Effects: Burning, itching, pelvic cramps. Antivirals Acyclovir (Zovirax) Mechanism of Action: Inhibits viral DNA replication. Indications: Herpes simplex (HSV-1 & HSV-2), shingles. Adverse Effects: Stinging, rash. Miscellaneous Dermatologics Permethrin (Elimite) Mechanism of Action: Neurotoxic to lice/scabies. Indications: Head lice, scabies. Adverse Effects: Itching, burning. Ophthalmic Medications Cholinergic Drugs (Miotics) Acetylcholine (Miochol-E) Indications: Induces miosis (pupil constriction) during surgery. Adverse Effects: Eye discomfort, blurred vision. Pilocarpine (Pilocar) Mechanism of Action: Stimulates cholinergic receptors, reduces intraocular pressure. Indications: Glaucoma, ocular surgery. Adverse Effects: Blurred vision, tearing, reduced night vision. Beta-Adrenergic Blockers Timolol (Timoptic) Mechanism of Action: Reduces aqueous humor production & increases outflow. Indications: Glaucoma, ocular hypertension. Adverse Effects: Eye irritation, systemic effects possible (bradycardia, hypotension). Otic Medications Ofloxacin (Floxin Otic) Mechanism of Action: Fluoroquinolone antibiotic (bacterial DNA disruption). Indications: Otitis externa & media. Adverse Effects: Mild itching/pain. Carbamide Peroxide (Debrox) Mechanism of Action: Softens & breaks down earwax. Indications: Earwax removal. Adverse Effects: Ear irritation. Nursing Considerations Lifespan Considerations Pediatrics: Infants: Thigh for vaccines, avoid aspirin (Reye’s syndrome risk). Monitor growth with long-term corticosteroids. Pregnancy: Avoid live vaccines (MMR, varicella, HPV, Zoster). Avoid isotretinoin (teratogenic). Elderly: Caution with ophthalmic beta-blockers (can cause systemic effects). Monitor renal function with fluoroquinolones (ototoxicity risk). Patient Teaching Vaccines: Keep records, report reactions. Use Tylenol, not aspirin for fever. Dermatologics: Apply with gloves, wash hands before & after. Sunscreen required with tretinoin & isotretinoin. Ophthalmic/Otic: Apply pressure to inner canthus after eye drops (reduce systemic absorption). Hold ear up & back (adults), down & back (children) for otic drops

acetylcholine

BIO 448 - Neurotransmitter I

Chapter 7 & 8: Acetylcholine, Glutamate, and GABA

Glycolysis, Acetylcholine, Krebs

PSYC 4309 Ch. 7 Acetylcholine

2. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

Biosynthesis and Signaling of Acetylcholine and Adrenaline