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Aetiology of skin conditions - other skin lecture is more important this one don't need to know in too much detail

Politics: Does the House of Lords have too much power over the House of Commons?

Psych 2NF3 Midterm 3: too much info

Too much calcium in the blood

Chapter 6: Adolescence Growth in Adolescence Puberty is a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation. These changes begin sometime l between eight and fourteen. Girls begin puberty at around ten years of age and boys begin approximately two years later. Pubertal changes take around three to four years to complete. Adolescents experience an overall physical growth spurt. The growth proceeds from the extremities toward the torso. This is referred to as distalproximal development. First the hands grow, then the arms, hand finally the torso. The overall physical growth spurt results in 10-11 inches of added height and 50 to 75 pounds of increased weight. The head begins to grow sometime after the feet have gone through their period of growth. Growth of the head is preceded by growth of the ears, nose, and lips. The difference in these patterns of growth result in adolescents appearing awkward and out-of-proportion. As the torso grows, so do the internal organs. The heart and lungs experience dramatic growth during this period. During childhood, boys and girls are quite similar in height and weight. However, gender differences become apparent during adolescence. From approximately age ten to fourteen, the average girl is taller, but not heavier, than the average boy. After that, the average boy becomes 223 both taller and heavier, although individual differences are certainly noted. As adolescents physically mature, weight differences are more noteworthy than height differences. At eighteen years of age, those that are heaviest weigh almost twice as much as the lightest, but the tallest teens are only about 10% taller than the shortest (Seifert, 2012). Both height and weight can certainly be sensitive issues for some teenagers. Most modern societies, and the teenagers in them, tend to favor relatively short women and tall men, as well as a somewhat thin body build, especially for girls and women. Yet, neither socially preferred height nor thinness is the destiny for many individuals. Being overweight, in particular, has become a common, serious problem in modern society due to the prevalence of diets high in fat and lifestyles low in activity (Tartamella et al., 2004). The educational system has, unfortunately, contributed to the problem as well by gradually restricting the number of physical education courses and classes in the past two decades. Average height and weight are also related somewhat to racial and ethnic background. In general, children of Asian background tend to be slightly shorter than children of European and North American background. The latter in turn tend to be shorter than children from African societies (Eveleth & Tanner, 1990). Body shape differs slightly as well, though the differences are not always visible until after puberty. Asian background youth tend to have arms and legs that are a bit short relative to their torsos, and African background youth tend to have relatively long arms and legs. The differences are only averages, as there are large individual differences as well. Sexual Development Typically, the growth spurt is followed by the development of sexual maturity. Sexual changes are divided into two categories: Primary sexual characteristics and secondary sexual characteristics. Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs. For males, this includes growth of the testes, penis, scrotum, and spermarche or first ejaculation of semen. This occurs between 11 and 15 years of age. For females, primary characteristics include growth of the uterus and menarche or the first menstrual period. The female gametes, which are stored in the ovaries, are present at birth, but are immature. Each ovary contains about 400,000 gametes, but only 500 will become mature eggs (Crooks & Baur, 2007). Beginning at puberty, one ovum ripens and is released about every 28 days during the menstrual cycle. Stress and higher percentage of body fat can bring menstruation at younger ages. Male Anatomy: Males have both internal and external genitalia that are responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse. Males produce their sperm on a cycle, and unlike the female's ovulation cycle, the male sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily. The main male sex organs are the penis and the testicles, the latter of which produce semen and sperm. The semen and sperm, as a result of sexual intercourse, can fertilize an ovum in the female's body; the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a fetus which is later born as a child. Female Anatomy: Female external genitalia is collectively known as the vulva, which includes the mons veneris, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening. Female internal reproductive organs consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine secretions, and passes the male's sperm through to the fallopian tubes while the ovaries release the eggs. A female is born with all her eggs already produced. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. Females have a monthly reproductive cycle; at certain intervals the ovaries release an egg, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the sperm might penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. If not fertilized, the egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation. Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes not directly linked to reproduction but signal sexual maturity. For males this includes broader shoulders and a lower voice as the larynx grows. Hair becomes coarser and darker, and hair growth occurs in the pubic area, under the arms and on the face. For females, breast development occurs around age 10, although full development takes several years. Hips broaden, and pubic and underarm hair develops and also becomes darker and coarser. Acne: An unpleasant consequence of the hormonal changes in puberty is acne, defined as pimples on the skin due to overactive sebaceous (oil-producing) glands (Dolgin, 2011). These glands develop at a greater speed than the skin ducts that discharges the oil. Consequently, the ducts can become blocked with dead skin and acne will develop. According to the University of California at Los Angeles Medical Center (2000), approximately 85% of adolescents develop acne, and boys develop acne more than girls because of greater levels of testosterone in their systems (Dolgin, 2011). Experiencing acne can lead the adolescent to withdraw socially, especially if they are self-conscious about their skin or teased (Goodman, 2006). Effects of Pubertal Age: The age of puberty is getting younger for children throughout the world. According to Euling et al. (2008) data are sufficient to suggest a trend toward an earlier breast development onset and menarche in girls. A century ago the average age of a girl’s first period in the United States and Europe was 16, while today it is around 13. Because there is no clear marker of puberty for boys, it is harder to determine if boys are maturing earlier too. In addition to better nutrition, less positive reasons associated with early puberty for girls include increased stress, obesity, and endocrine disrupting chemicals. Cultural differences are noted with Asian-American girls, on average, developing last, while African American girls enter puberty the earliest. Hispanic girls start puberty the second earliest, while European-American girls rank third in their age of starting puberty. Although African American girls are typically the first to develop, they are less likely to experience negative consequences of early puberty when compared to European-American girls (Weir, 2016). Research has demonstrated mental health problems linked to children who begin puberty earlier than their peers. For girls, early puberty is associated with depression, substance use, eating disorders, disruptive behavior disorders, and early sexual behavior (Graber, 2013). Early maturing girls demonstrate more anxiety and less confidence in their relationships with family and friends, and they compare themselves more negatively to their peers (Weir, 2016). Problems with early puberty seem to be due to the mismatch between the child’s appearance and the way she acts and thinks. Adults especially may assume the child is more capable than she actually is, and parents might grant more freedom than the child’s age would indicate. For girls, the emphasis on physical attractiveness and sexuality is emphasized at puberty and they may lack effective coping strategies to deal with the attention they may receive. 226 Figure 6.4 Source Additionally, mental health problems are more likely to occur when the child is among the first in his or her peer group to develop. Because the preadolescent time is one of not wanting to appear different, early developing children stand out among their peer group and gravitate toward those who are older. For girls, this results in them interacting with older peers who engage in risky behaviors such as substance use and early sexual behavior (Weir, 2016). Boys also see changes in their emotional functioning at puberty. According to Mendle, Harden, Brooks-Gunn, and Graber (2010), while most boys experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms during puberty, boys who began puberty earlier and exhibited a rapid tempo, or a fast rate of change, actually increased in depressive symptoms. The effects of pubertal tempo were stronger than those of pubertal timing, suggesting that rapid pubertal change in boys may be a more important risk factor than the timing of development. In a further study to better analyze the reasons for this change, Mendle et al. (2012) found that both early maturing boys and rapidly maturing boys displayed decrements in the quality of their peer relationships as they moved into early adolescence, whereas boys with more typical timing and tempo development actually experienced improvements in peer relationships. The researchers concluded that the transition in peer relationships may be especially challenging for boys whose pubertal maturation differs significantly from those of others their age. Consequences for boys attaining early puberty were increased odds of cigarette, alcohol, or another drug use (Dudovitz, et al., 2015). Gender Role Intensification: At about the same time that puberty accentuates gender, role differences also accentuate for at least some teenagers. Some girls who excelled at math or science in elementary school, may curb their enthusiasm and displays of success at these subjects for fear of limiting their popularity or attractiveness as girls (Taylor et al/, 1995; Sadker, 2004). Some boys who were not especially interested in sports previously may begin dedicating themselves to athletics to affirm their masculinity in the eyes of others. Some boys and girls who once worked together successfully on class projects may no longer feel comfortable doing so, or alternatively may now seek to be working partners, but for social rather than academic reasons. Such changes do not affect all youngsters equally, nor affect any one youngster equally on all occasions. An individual may act like a young adult on one day, but more like a child the next. Adolescent Brain The brain undergoes dramatic changes during adolescence. Although it does not get larger, it matures by becoming more interconnected and specialized (Giedd, 2015). The myelination and 227 development of connections between neurons continues. This results in an increase in the white matter of the brain and allows the adolescent to make significant improvements in their thinking and processing skills. Different brain areas become myelinated at different times. For example, the brain’s language areas undergo myelination during the first 13 years. Completed insulation of the axons consolidates these language skills but makes it more difficult to learn a second language. With greater myelination, however, comes diminished plasticity as a myelin coating inhibits the growth of new connections (Dobbs, 2012). Even as the connections between neurons are strengthened, synaptic pruning occurs more than during childhood as the brain adapts to changes in the environment. This synaptic pruning causes the gray matter of the brain, or the cortex, to become thinner but more efficient (Dobbs, 2012). The corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres, continues to thicken allowing for stronger connections between brain areas. Additionally, the hippocampus becomes more strongly connected to the frontal lobes, allowing for greater integration of memory and experiences into our decision making. The limbic system, which regulates emotion and reward, is linked to the hormonal changes that occur at puberty. The limbic system is also related to novelty seeking and a shift toward interacting with peers. In contrast, the prefrontal cortex which is involved in the control of impulses, organization, planning, and making good decisions, does not fully develop until the mid-20s. According to Giedd (2015) the significant aspect of the later developing prefrontal cortex and early development of the limbic system is the “mismatch” in timing between the two. The approximately ten years that separates the development of these two brain areas can result in risky behavior, poor decision making, and weak emotional control for the adolescent. When puberty begins earlier, this mismatch extends even further. Teens often take more risks than adults and according to research it is because they weigh risks and rewards differently than adults do (Dobbs, 2012). For adolescents the brain’s sensitivity to the neurotransmitter dopamine peaks, and dopamine is involved in reward circuits, so the possible rewards outweighs the risks. Adolescents respond especially strongly to social rewards during activities, and they prefer the company of others their same age. Chein et al. (2011) found that peers sensitize brain regions associated with potential rewards. For example, adolescent drivers make risky driving decisions when with friends to impress them, and teens are much more likely to commit crimes together in comparison to adults (30 and older) who commit them alone (Steinberg et al., 2017). In addition to dopamine, the adolescent brain is affected by oxytocin which facilitates bonding and makes social connections more rewarding. With both dopamine and oxytocin engaged, it is no wonder that adolescents seek peers and excitement in their lives that could end up actually harming them. 228 Because of all the changes that occur in the adolescent brain, the chances for abnormal development can occur, including mental illness. In fact, 50% of the mental illness occurs by the age 14 and 75% occurs by age 24 (Giedd, 2015). Additionally, during this period of development the adolescent brain is especially vulnerable to damage from drug exposure. For example, repeated exposure to marijuana can affect cellular activity in the endocannabinoid system. Consequently, adolescents are more sensitive to the effects of repeated marijuana exposure (Weir, 2015). However, researchers have also focused on the highly adaptive qualities of the adolescent brain which allow the adolescent to move away from the family towards the outside world (Dobbs, 2012; Giedd, 2015). Novelty seeking and risk taking can generate positive outcomes including meeting new people and seeking out new situations. Separating from the family and moving into new relationships and different experiences are actually quite adaptive for society. Adolescent Sleep According to the National Sleep Foundation (NSF) (2016), adolescents need about 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night to function best. The most recent Sleep in America poll in 2006 indicated that adolescents between sixth and twelfth grade were not getting the recommended amount of sleep. On average adolescents only received 7 ½ hours of sleep per night on school nights with younger adolescents getting more than older ones (8.4 hours for sixth graders and only 6.9 hours for those in twelfth grade). For the older adolescents, only about one in ten (9%) get an optimal amount of sleep, and they are more likely to experience negative consequences the following day. These include feeling too tired or sleepy, being cranky or irritable, falling asleep in school, having a depressed mood, and drinking caffeinated beverages (NSF, 2016). Additionally, they are at risk for substance abuse, car crashes, poor academic performance, obesity, and a weakened immune system (Weintraub, 2016). Troxel et al. (2019) found that insufficient sleep in adolescents is a predictor of risky sexual behaviors. Reasons given for this include that those adolescents who stay out late, typically without parental supervision, are more likely to engage in a variety of risky behaviors, including risky sex, such as not using birth control or using substances before/during sex. An alternative explanation for risky sexual behavior is that the lack of sleep negatively affects impulsivity and decision-making processes. Figure 6.7 Source Why do adolescents not get adequate sleep? In addition to known environmental and social factors, including work, homework, media, technology, and socializing, the adolescent brain is also a factor. As adolescent go through puberty, their circadian rhythms change and push back their sleep time until later in the evening (Weintraub, 2016). This biological change not only keeps adolescents awake at night, it makes it difficult for them to wake up. When they are awake too early, their brains do not function optimally. Impairments are noted in attention, academic achievement, and behavior while increases in tardiness and absenteeism are also seen. 229 To support adolescents’ later sleeping schedule, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended that school not begin any earlier than 8:30 a.m. Unfortunately, over 80% of American schools begin their day earlier than 8:30 a.m. with an average start time of 8:03 a.m. (Weintraub, 2016). Psychologists and other professionals have been advocating for later school times, and they have produced research demonstrating better student outcomes for later start times. More middle and high schools have changed their start times to better reflect the sleep research. However, the logistics of changing start times and bus schedules are proving too difficult for some schools leaving many adolescent vulnerable to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. Troxel et al. (2019) cautions that adolescents should find a middle ground between sleeping too little during the school week and too much during the weekends. Keeping consistent sleep schedules of too little sleep will result in sleep deprivation but oversleeping on weekends can affect the natural biological sleep cycle making it harder to sleep on weekdays. Adolescent Sexual Activity By about age ten or eleven, most children experience increased sexual attraction to others that affects social life, both in school and out (McClintock & Herdt, 1996). By the end of high school, more than half of boys and girls report having experienced sexual intercourse at least once, though it is hard to be certain of the proportion because of the sensitivity and privacy of the information. (Center for Disease Control, 2004; Rosenbaum, 2006). Adolescent Pregnancy: As can be seen in Figure 6.8, in 2018 females aged 15–19 years experienced a birth rate (live births) of 17.4 per 1,000 women. The birth rate for teenagers has declined by 58% since 2007 and 72% since 1991, the most recent peak (Hamilton, Joyce, Martin, & Osterman, 2019). It appears that adolescents seem to be less sexually active than in previous years, and those who are sexually active seem to be using birth control (CDC, 2016). Figure 6.8 Source Risk Factors for Adolescent Pregnancy: Miller et al. (2001) found that parent/child closeness, parental supervision, and parents' values against teen intercourse (or unprotected intercourse) decreased the risk of adolescent pregnancy. In contrast, residing in disorganized/dangerous neighborhoods, living in a lower SES family, living with a single parent, having older sexually 230 active siblings or pregnant/parenting teenage sisters, early puberty, and being a victim of sexual abuse place adolescents at an increased risk of adolescent pregnancy. Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy: After the child is born life can be difficult for a teenage mother. Only 40% of teenagers who have children before age 18 graduate from high school. Without a high school degree her job prospects are limited, and economic independence is difficult. Teen mothers are more likely to live in poverty, and more than 75% of all unmarried teen mother receive public assistance within 5 years of the birth of their first child. Approximately, 64% of children born to an unmarried teenage high-school dropout live in poverty. Further, a child born to a teenage mother is 50% more likely to repeat a grade in school and is more likely to perform poorly on standardized tests and drop out before finishing high school (March of Dimes, 2012). Research analyzing the age that men father their first child and how far they complete their education have been summarized by the Pew Research Center (2015) and reflect the research for females. Among dads ages 22 to 44, 70% of those with less than a high school diploma say they fathered their first child before the age of 25. In comparison, less than half (45%) of fathers with some college experience became dads by that age. Additionally, becoming a young father occurs much less for those with a bachelor’s degree or higher as just 14% had their first child prior to age 25. Like men, women with more education are likely to be older when they become mothers. Eating Disorders Figure 6.9 According to the DSM-5-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2022), eating disorders are characterized by a persistent disturbance of eating or eating-related behavior that results in the altered consumption or absorption of food and that significantly impairs physical health or psychosocial functioning. Although eating disorders can occur in children and adults, they frequently appear during the teen years or young adulthood (National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), 2016). Eating disorders affect both genders, although rates among women are 2½ times greater than among men. Similar to women who have eating disorders, men also have a distorted sense of body image, including muscle dysmorphia, which is an extreme desire to increase one’s muscularity (Bosson et al., 2019). The prevalence of eating disorders in the United States is similar among Non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics, African-Americans, and Asians, with the exception that anorexia nervosa is more common among Non-Hispanic Whites (Hudson et al., 2007; Wade et al., 2011). Source Risk Factors for Eating Disorders: Because of the high mortality rate, researchers are looking into the etiology of the disorder and associated risk factors. Researchers are finding that eating disorders are caused by a complex interaction of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors (NIMH, 2016). Eating disorders appear to run in families, and researchers are working to identify DNA variations that are linked to the increased risk of developing eating 231 disorders. Researchers from King’s College London (2019) found that the genetic basis of anorexia overlaps with both metabolic and body measurement traits. The genetic factors also influence physical activity, which may explain the high activity level of those with anorexia. Further, the genetic basis of anorexia overlaps with other psychiatric disorders. Researchers have also found differences in patterns of brain activity in women with eating disorders in comparison with healthy women. The main criteria for the most common eating disorders: Anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder are described in the DSM-5-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2022) and listed in Table 6.1. Table 6.1 DSM-5-TR Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa  Restriction of energy intake leading to a significantly low body weight  Intense fear of gaining weight  Disturbance in one’s self-evaluation regarding body weight Bulimia Nervosa Binge-Eating Disorder  Recurrent episodes of binge eating  Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain, including purging, laxatives, fasting or excessive exercise  Self-evaluation is unduly affected by body shape and weight  Recurrent episodes of binge eating  Marked distress regarding binge eating  The binge eating is not associated with the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior Health Consequences of Eating Disorders: For those suffering from anorexia, health consequences include an abnormally slow heart rate and low blood pressure, which increases the risk for heart failure. Additionally, there is a reduction in bone density (osteoporosis), muscle loss and weakness, severe dehydration, fainting, fatigue, and overall weakness. Anorexia nervosa has the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder (Arcelus et al., 2011). Individuals with this disorder may die from complications associated with starvation, while others die of suicide. In women, suicide is much more common in those with anorexia than with most other mental disorders. The binge and purging cycle of bulimia can affect the digestives system and lead to electrolyte and chemical imbalances that can affect the heart and other major organs. Frequent vomiting can cause inflammation and possible rupture of the esophagus, as well as tooth decay and staining from stomach acids. Lastly, binge eating disorder results in similar health risks to obesity, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, heart disease, Type II diabetes, and gall bladder disease (National Eating Disorders Association, 2016). 232 Figure 6.10 Source Eating Disorders Treatment: To treat eating disorders, adequate nutrition and stopping inappropriate behaviors, such as purging, are the foundations of treatment. Treatment plans are tailored to individual needs and include medical care, nutritional counseling, medications (such as antidepressants), and individual, group, and/or family psychotherapy (NIMH, 2016). For example, the Maudsley Approach has parents of adolescents with anorexia nervosa be actively involved in their child’s treatment, such as assuming responsibility for feeding the child. To eliminate binge eating and purging behaviors, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) assists sufferers by identifying distorted thinking patterns and changing inaccurate beliefs

Sports & Exercise Science Lectures History of Sport and Exercise Science, highlighting relevance of training principles today. • Historian part of speaker finds interest in history of Sport and Exercise Science. Sport and exercise science history and its evolution. • Sport Science: Systematic approach to understanding factors relating to sports performance. • Exercise Science: Systematic approach to understanding how the human body responds to physical activity. • Agriculture led to sedentary lifestyle and exercise became a way to combat it (0:03:14) • Ancient Chinese philosophers like Confucius and Hippocrates advocated for exercise as a means of maintaining health (5000 years ago) Exercise science history, including Leonardo da Vinci's anatomical sketches and early physiology experiments. • Leonardo da Vinci (1500s) made accurate anatomical sketches, discovering heart as muscle pump and nervous system hierarchy. • William Harvey (1600s) discovered blood circulation in one direction, and Boyle (1600s) found Boyle's law, which explains breathing mechanism. • Johan Bernoulli (1700s) developed mathematical models to explain muscle mechanics, using tractors to investigate muscle contractions. • James Lin discovered the origins of scourgia by inviting vitamin C-rich food, with great success. • Anton Laviesia named oxygen and recognized hydrogen as an element, and his experiments on human respiration led to a better understanding of metabolism and nutrition. Note Sport and Exercise Science sub-disciplines and their roles in sport and clinical contexts. • Sport and Exercise Science sub disciplines explore roles in sporting and clinical contexts (psychologists, biomechanics, nutritionists, strength coaches, physiologists, performance analysts) • Accredited Exercise Physiologists provide individualized exercise programs for high-risk populations (hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, musculoskeletal conditions, injuries) Exercise physiology and biomechanics in sports. • Exercise physiologist specializes in prescribing exercise for patients with chronic diseases or injuries. • Sports physiologist studies the physiological demands of sports and advises athletes on training and competition. • Biochemist analyzes technique and injury mechanisms in sports, measuring mechanical loads and risk assessments. Improving athletic performance through strength training and conditioning. • Unknown Speaker discusses biomechanics and jumping throws, using a three-mesh Castle system to measure angles, velocities, and selections of throwing motion. • Strength and conditioning coach works with athletes to improve strength, power, speed, fitness, acceleration, agility, endurance, and flexibility. • Coach designs programs to reduce injury risk, optimize recovery, and deliver rehab programs in conjunction with medical staff for injured athletes. Motor control, learning, and performance in sports. • Motor control specialists focus on learning, performing, and retaining motor skills over time. • Sport psychologists help athletes overcome barriers to optimal performance, using techniques like visualization and mindfulness. Sports dietitians' role in optimizing athletes' health, performance, and nutrition. • Sports dietitians tailor nutritional strategies for athletes to optimize health, performance, and body composition. • Dietitians recommend food first approach and supplements when necessary, and provide individualized advice and hydration stations. • Unknown Speaker discusses six specialist supplements in Sport and Exercise Science, including nutrition (12:30) • Speaker shares insights on interdisciplinary approach to high performance in surfing, with focus on strength conditioning and sport science (14:45) Functional Anatomy an understanding of how to use a correct terms to describe movement interaction, understand major bones, muscles, joints, and how they work together in human movement, and begin to develop the ability to form a movement. Analysis of exercise and supporting tasks. Despite in this lecture, if you're unfamiliar with anatomy, it might require a second viewing. Beautiful lecture is the ability to stop review. If you require any further help with the content, please reach out to your tutor. So the first thing I understand in anthropical language is that whenever we refer to position or something, we're referring to it in its position when in the anatomical position. So this is the standardized position of the body where it is always direct and facing forwards, with the palms of the side of the body, toes and palms of the hands facing forwards. Having a standard anatomical position is crucial to reference and describe the relationship of body sequence to one another when it is anatomical position. There are three COVID plans from which we can view or segment the body that is essential, frontal and reverse plastics. So the station plane, or the median plane, is the side on view of the body, meaning you see a profile of the person. The frontal plane is also called the corona plane, and there's the view we get between directly at the front or back of the body. And finally, the transverse plane, also called the horizontal plane, is the birds of view of the body. There generally can be from the ground up as well, right, if it's never nearly achieved. And the other understand that the body can be viewed in three different planes. It's relatively straightforward to understand that rotational movement also occurs in each of these three axes. So this is called an axis of rotation, and is essentially an imaginary line about which any rotational movement occurs perpendicular to that Cardinal plane of action, just like the anatomical position and Cardinal planes allow us to describe the relative positions with different body parts. So it doesn't understand axis of rotation allows us to constantly describe human movement. However, most movements of human body typically occur about two or more axes of rotation, which makes the analysis of human movement far more challenging. So you think about the 3x Y and Z plane take elbow flexion like a bicycle. When view from front and the front plane, it looks like the forearm hand is simply moving up towards the face, open, viewed side on from the sagittal plane, you see that the forearm hand also moving away from the body and then back towards the body as it goes through that arc. Movement. This way to understand all three other anatomical positions, the counter planes and the axes of rotation, to be able to accurately describe pure movement. So now we can consider best view in his plans. So in the anatomical position, the most common actually the rotation between the SAP flexion and extension. And we'll go through that few slides for now. Include flexion and extension at the wrist, elbow, shoulder, neck, trunk, hip, knee and ankle. At the ankle. It's also referred to as dorsi flexion and plantar flexion, rather than flexion extension. Multi joint actions can involve both. So kicking your foot forwards involve flexing the hip, swinging forward and extending in the knee. Some of that actually rotation. Best views in the frontal plane include adduction and abduction at the shoulder and hip, lateral flexion at the neck and trunk, as well as radial and ulna deviation at the wrist and diversion and inversion at the ankle. And this is why I move the mechanism, which can result in raw ego the arm actually in breast stroke. Swing is adduction, kicking a stop or the ring forward involved adduction of the hip. Two legs coming together are being added so that's adduction. When the arm is being taken away from the body, it is being abducted. It's been taken away. Finding the transverse plane. Some of the best view axes of rotation and movements include internal and external rotation of the shoulder and hip, and horizontal adduction and abduction for the shoulder and the forearms, pronation and supination and neck and trunk rotation. Each of these three slides are diagrams. Highlight the movements just went through. The next slide go through the names of these moves and what the actions are. Flexion and extension refer to increasing and decreasing the angle in the frontal plane. So for instance, elbow flexion is raising your forearm and hand, while extension is lowering back down. This is truthfully all flexion extension, except for the ankle, which you remember dorsiflexion and plantar flexion. So dorsiflexion refers to moving the top of the foot towards the leg, and plant deflection is away from the leg towards the ground. I find this easier to remember using your plan to flexion as the movement required to step on a plane with your toes. Adduction. And adduction refer to moving away or towards the central plane. Next is protraction and retraction. This is moving something forward or patterns. And a good example is the second level of shoulder blades. When you pull your shoulder blades back and away. This is attraction. Protraction is the opposite elevation and depression. Can be also thought of with regarding the shoulder is raising, like in a shrug, while depression is lowering back down another shoulder blade sample is upward and downward rotation, with upward rotation referring to the rotational movement around access to a point superior and downward rotation, maybe opposite. Medium and lateral rotation referred to rotating toward or away from midnight. So the arms hanging medial rotation is internal rotation of your arm, the shoulder towards midnight, and external or lateral rotation being back away from midnight. Pronation suppression has special terms for forearm movement. With a forearm rotation to have your palm facing upward in an anatomical position in front of supreme and the back of your hands facing forward into pronation. We can also use these terms of the foot, but they are known as inversion, meaning the sole of the foot faces towards mid level E version, when the solar foot rolls away from the middle. Our last two terms, especially with the circumduction, referring to the combination of flexion and attention abduction and medial lateral rotations, and often we could curtain rally, but when we move up arms or legs, it's usually not in a single plane through a multiple plane with multiple positive move and social conduction despises. Now opposition is the movement of bringing tips of your fingers and thumb together. And the reason we also have possible thumbs are very useful with lasers pick up items. Here is a diagram illustrating protraction, retraction, elevation and depression, these lines of upper rotation and downward rotation. So on this slide is a consolidated view of some special actions that only currently in places. So we've got scapular to demonstrate protraction, retraction, depression, elevation, plus upward and downward rotation. You can see that you can invert or divert the ankle. In running terms, we can talk about pronation as collapsing inwards during foot strike, which means I saw the foot faces away from midline. Next is illustrate example of plantar flexion and dorsiflexion and ankle, and define this example of protraction, retraction, elation and depression of the Mandal which is the lower jaw bone. So you would think that with each member of the move toward or away from the midline, or up versus down, all these things, or have anatomical terms to solve the time in terms of the direction of body. So anterior and posterior refer to the front and back of the body in atomic position. You also call them ventral end dorsal, and think of dorsalism, but the dorsal is the dorsal fin on the back, mostly we refer to as anterior and posterior. Superior and inferior refer to the directions towards the head or towards the feet, while medial and lateral refer to the direction towards the midline or away from midline in a sideways direction, approximately distal, our special tendencies to refer to the relative positioning of something compared to another landmark. So if something is distal, it refers to sides located away from a specific area, most often the center of body, and for instance, the hand is visible to the elbow. Proximal refers to sites located towards a specific area, so the COVID The elbow is proximal to the hand. The term distal, or is maximum or distance or proximal indicates proximity. Now last terms are superficial and deep, which require you to think in three days. So something that's superficial is close to the surface or the skin of the body, or something that's deep is away from so muscles are deep to the skin, but superficial to bone. So many of these will become important when we talk about anatomy, as certain structures can be proximal or anterior or superficial to other structures. The human anatomy is built around the scaffolding of the split system. So this slide shows you in the structure an anatom. We're not going to go through that in this lecture for this electron. Functional anatomy is more important than understand the function of the skeleton that bones make up, beyond just being the strong structure holding us together, the way the bones fit together and serve as attachment points for the ligaments, tendons and muscles, serves to allow various movements of the body that we've already discussed. The skeleton by the rib cage also protects wild organs, while the internal structure of the bone allows for the storage of minerals and production of new blood cells. We wouldn't have any of the functional movements we've discussed so far without having a skeleton to support these movements. There are 206, bones in the human body. We don't need to learn them all, but we're certainly discussing some of them in this unit. So basic understanding of the major structure of the skeleton is important, and you can use this as a reference for some of those major bones. In this particular image, the green bones represent the actual skeleton, and the non green turn the perpendicular skeleton thanks to better understand how movement can occur in the body. Is cartilage, which is a stiff but flexible connective tissue found in many applications throughout the body. So cartilage is composed of specialized cells called corona sites. They produce a large amount of extracellular matrix. So cartilage can be classified as three types. We have hyaline cartilage, which forms a smooth surface on articular joint surfaces, with Fibro cartilage that is a part of form of cartilage found at sites such as the pubic symphysis. And you've got elastin cartilage, which can be found in here. Cartilage doesn't actually contain blood vessels instead, the chondrocytes are supplied by diffusion, which is helped by the pumping action generated by the compression of articulate cartilage or flexion of the elastic charge. So because it doesn't have a blood supply, cartilage grows and repairs more slowly, which is why cartilage injuries are so slow to healing athletes and and often require arthroscopic surgery, which are inelastic but flexible bands of connective tissue that attached, attached two bones together so they enhance joint stability by maintaining the alignment of bones and limiting range of motion. Those are the two primary functions keep bone and enhancement stability. The most common injuries involve involving into sprains, which means over stretching and tearing of the fibers, and they can be quite slow to heal. So if we bring that together, we get a joints so these facilitate the movers that we discussed at the front of this lecture, per muscular structure, joined by the ones, separate by cartilage. The form joints, which used to be also called articulations. There are three types of classifications of joint. So we have fibrous joints, which are bound by dense connective tissue. And these are joints in the scale, and they really don't move much. You have a catalyst joint, which, as the name suggests, is a joint with fibrous cartilage separating two bones, such as the symphysis, pubis and the ribs. And again, they don't move very much. And then finally, we have synovial joints, which are bound by a joint capsule in containing ligaments and muscles to allow them to occur. And these are the ones with most interesting in this lecture. So not only a synovial joints most interesting for me, but also the most common type of joint. So the articulate capsule, which surrounds synovial joint forms a kind of SAC around the joint. And so there's also synovial membrane inside the articulate capsule, which secretes synovial fluid, and this lubricates the articular cartilage of the joint services, similar to enjoy car lubricating the moving parts. It also nourishes the joint structure, and it can act as a shock absorber, distributing the stress evenly across the articular surface. So all of this combines to allow for smooth fluid movement joints, and usually without needing an oil change during your lifetime, as we've already gone over, the bones with the joints are held together by ligaments. But what we haven't talked about here is the joints can also contain something else called a bursa, which we'll discuss a bit later. So even though synovial joints are major type of joint, they can also be classified with various types of synovial joints. So we have plain joints, which can be found in the joints between the vertebral articulating surfaces. We've got hinge joints such as the elbow or the knee. We have pivot joints such as the ulnar and radius. We have COVID joints in the fingers. We have several joints, which is the thumbnail and sub joint, such as the hip and joint. Okay, so this is a very useful slide for a reference for various locations where these joints can be found. As I mentioned before, we have bursa which can sometimes occur with some synovial joints. These are small sacks of fibrous tissue filled with synovial fluid, and they are found where different parts move over one another in the body, and they help reduce friction within the joint. So these mostly occur with bones, ligaments, muscles, skin or tendons, over later, and will rub together. If a person comes in flames, it can lead to an injury you might have heard for bursitis, where the bursar releases too much fluid and the joint gets very swollen, and they can make movement difficult. So burst sit around tendons, and so that's the next structure that we look at. So tendons are tough but flexible bands of tissue that attach muscle to bone and help facilitate movement. So like many fibrous structures we've already discussed, they have a limited blood supply, which makes healing and repair slow. Some common tenderness injuries, which are strains or over stretching. Can be a tenderpathy or tenderloin, which is a result of inflammation, and tenderlois, which is a chronic inflammatory condition. Lastly, we have the muscles, and as with the bones, you'll do need to understand some of the basic muscles of the body, but for the for this functional anatomy component, we'll just talk about the functions of the skeleton worker. So essentially, our muscles control our posture. They provide support for the soft tissues in the body. They allow the body to store energy to use during movement exercise. They can guard entrances and agents in the body, and they also produce heat to allow us to regulate our body temperature. When muscle is contracted, it pulls on the tendon of the muscle, which in turn is connected to the bones, bone, and then we get the movement. So the way in which that occurs in a single muscle cell fiber is made up of many myofibrils, which can make up any starters. So within the start of me there's actin and myosin filaments, and that's called an actin mycin cross bridge. And they slide past and pull each other closer together or further to control the movement. So whilst we're over the 700 muscles in the body, here's a list of some of the major muscles that we'll refer to, and you'll cover it in a different unit, but certainly will be exposed as many of these throughout the labs. So reaching the end of this lecture, we now have to use the knowledge from this lecture to answer some applied problems. So during stationary cycling, what plane or planes of movement is this exercise occurring? So what axis of rotation is movement occurring? So we will need to look at a sporting movement or an exercise and describe it in its proper anatomical terms, so not always as simple as stationary cycling. So take this diagonal Wood Chop exercise as an example. This is still quite a basic movement. If there are multiple axes of rotation occurring through multiple planes involving many joints, bones and muscles. And even in a more complex example, we can go to Goldsmith and see movement across multiple axes of rotation of all three planes. For example, the frontal plane, we can see abduction and abduction, as well as inversion and inversion. In the Sagitta plane, we can see flexion and extension in the medial lateral axis. On the transverse plane, we can see rotation around the longitudinal latches. Many real world supporting movements will be like this, involving a complex coordination of many movements across many planes. We will work through all of these in the labs. So to be able to describe all of these different actions using proper environmental terminology, I highly recommend you start the voting time to study with most of your three credit point units. You'll find that towns a week is allocated for full time state, only four hours of that is lectures and labs, which leaves the rest of your time for state. So please use that time, why is it, this particular left of today on functionality, you may have many questions about plans of movement anatomical terms. I'm trying to write them down, bring them to the lab so that we can speak to your tuners about their experiences with learning this material. Thanks for watching this lecture. Body compostion In this lecture, we will cover body composition, the different types of tissue in the human body, and how these are distributed, measured and the impact on our health. of this lecture, you'll have an understanding of the components of body composition and implications of body composition on health. So body composition is the general term that refers to the relative amounts of tissue types of the body, generally related to fat and fat free mass. It is expressed as a percentage of body fat. There are general classifications of body composition, from underweight to severely obese. Body Composition is related to general health and can also have an impact on supporting performance. The assessment of body composition can be used to monitor lifestyle interventions. There are optimal ranges for health and exercise. Professionals administer different Exercise and Nutritional strategies to influence body composition. There any correlations between risk of chronic disease and body position, including coronary heart disease, diabetes, hypertension, some cancers, hyperlipidemia is more commonly referred to as high cholesterol, but encompasses several blood lipids. Body Mass Index is one measure of obesity as a relationship between height and weight. On this low we can see the relative risk of type two diabetes starts increasing rapidly between BMI 25 to 30, which is Catia crisis, overweight, and beyond, which is obese. We can see on the right side that the same relationship holds true for many forms of cancer. Delicately, this pilot, diabetes and cancer can be thought of as lifestyle diseases, and that body composition is one factor which is correlated with the risk of these diseases. Here we can see the five different lenses through which to view body composition. So at the time level, we mostly hydrogen and oxygen, the word elements on a carbon skeleton with trace elements making it the rest. At the molecular level, we mostly water with fats, proteins and minerals making up the remainder. At the cellular level, where you predominantly cell mass, extra cellular solids, that's ECS, that ECF is extra cellular fluids and fat. And functionally, which we're most often interested is joint modify is muscle and fat, and then other substances like blood and bone. So within the functional assessment of body composition, there are a number of different models that can be used to describe body composition. As we can see, whether we're using a two, three or four component model, the common factor is fat mass. So different techniques are required for different analyzes, but most techniques can identify fat mass or a fat percentage analysis. So while fat is a common denominator between these different assessments of body composition, there are still different types of fat. So optimal fat is critical for optimal health. It is necessary for healthy cell and system function. At the minimum, it's 3% for men and 12% for women. Fat can be stored under the skin, known as subcutaneous or visceral fat, and deeper fat around the organs. It's the visceral fat that can be the dangerous for health due to its proximity to the organs. Here are a number of different ranges for recommended levels of body fat, but broadly speaking and optimum body fat percentage could be generalized to be between eight and 35% if you're unsure what these different levels of body fat look like, This slide provides a rough depiction of how body shapes change with increasing levels of body fat. For similar levels of body fat percentage, there are different fat distributions referred to as Android fat, or going away fat core locally there's the apple or pear body shape. The Android shape is more associated with health risk as the fat is stored around the organs. So humans are becoming increasingly overweight innovative. This is due to a number of reasons, but it can be summarized simply, as we are consuming more of energy. As wealth increases and high energy convenience foods become more prevalent, we're also burning less and less energy as tasks which were typically performed manually and burned like calories, and they are performed by technology machines. So this combination of more energy being consumed and less being burned has resulted in an explosion in obesity that's particularly in wealthy first world countries, and with that, an increase in preventable chronic diseases. So as many physical characteristics, there is a genetic component, and there are rare forms of obesity that are result of gene mutations which influence appetite or energy homeostasis. However, given that human genetics have changed little in the past 50 years, and obesity rates have increased significantly, the impact of genes on obesity are quite small. Instead, lifestyle choices driving the change in obesity rates, the magnitude of chronic health conditions associated with obesity are large, expensive and largely preventable, so being overweight has been demonstrated to impact cardiovascular disease, cancer, high blood pressure, hypertension and type two diabetes. Type Two Diabetes is a situation where the body becomes resistant to insulin. Type one diabetes is an unable genetic condition that usually in young people, where the body cannot produce insulin. Being overweight or obese can impact sleep as we naturally, plays a critical role in physical and mental health. However, it's not only being overweight that has health implications. Being underweight can also carry significant risks. In women, it can lead to menstrual abnormalities and associated health complications with that. In women, it can lead to osteoporosis. So that's a condition characterized by weaker bones, which makes it more susceptible to fracture. But physiologists and dietitians can calculate metabolic rate using equations to determine the basal metabolic rate, that's the minimum energy required to maintain physiological function, so it is dependent upon age, gender and body mass. Resting metabolic rate can still be calculated, and it's similar, but it's measured under different conditions. This is important because knowing the metabolic rate consists professionals to prescribe nutrition and exercise, inventions to manage body composition. So once we know roughly how much energy a person needs to function at rest, we can apply an activity factor to this BMR to determine daily energy requirements, in total, to maintain weight, and use this as a guide to monitor nutritional intake, to manage weight. So in summary, body composition is the compartmentalization of body tissues. Body fat is essential for health, but there is an optimal range and lifestyle choices impact body composition. So overweight and obesity has a range of adverse health risks, and likewise, underweight is also the health risk. Exercise professionals look at the energy requirements and we can calculate those to help us by nutrition and exercise interventions to help people with weight, composition. ANTHROPOMETRY we will build on understanding of body composition and the means available for body composition assessment. By the end of this lecture today, you will understand how to measure and interpret body composition using both field and lab based methods. So assessment methods for many physical tests, including anthropogenic can be divided into field based tests and lab based tests. Generally speaking, field tests are more simple, quicker and cheaper to administer, but can lack the accuracy and sometimes the detail of lab methods. Lab methods, on the other also, are far more accurate, of the more expensive compared to field tests have much tighter testing protocols involving more time, and they make them more challenging to administer to administer. Two groups, we'll go through some of these assessments. Now, with all testing, there are protocols to ensure there are reliability to test. So for height and weight, an example would be weighing someone with shoes off for the first time and then shoes on the next time will result in increasing weight. That's the weight of their shoes, but we could mistakenly conclude that they'd increase weight. So an easy way to avoid confusion with all their testing protocols is to have standardized testing. So with for height, we would remove shoots, we would stand straight and have the feet together. On this last point, think about the difference in height of a couple of centimeters, and the difference between your feet together and your feet wide apart. For body weight, ideally, your point is in minimal clothing, which is not always convenient or comfortable, but something that we should consider for if we're doing some athlete populations, particularly swims or water ball athletes, we're trying to get them with straight from the pool where they have weight here, because that would affect the measurement as well. Body mass index, or BMI, is a common method to non invasively assess body composition in terms of overweight and absent, using just height and weight. So it is based on the concept that individuals with lower body fat will have a lower BMI. However, that's not always accurate in the sense that a heavily muscular athlete can appear overweight or even obese, although they have a metabolically healthy tissue in terms of they have a lot of muscle mass. So here is an example of a classification table which outlines for adults, normal BMI, overweight, obesity and severe obesity would be based upon that relationship of height and weight. Though there's an illustration as discussed in BMI, it's very well researched, and there is really strong relationships between BMI and health complications, such as diabetes, hypertension, coronavisis, heart disease. So colitheasis is the formation of gallstones and hardened deposits within the fluid of the gallbladder, which is small organ under liver, Corona heart disease. So that's CHD. So this BMI chart doesn't even show obesity, which is a BMI over 30 under the risk of higher BMI through the range of normal and overweight as alluded to, BMI is a pretty useful tool for measuring antibiotic at the population level, as for most people, weight increases with percentage of body fat. However, it doesn't directly measure fat mass. Therefore at an individual level, it might not, might not necessarily be a great measure. So for example, if you lose three kilograms of muscle and gain three kilograms of fat to body mass index, let's say very muscley individuals are often considered overweight or obese, and the elderly can have non representative BMI due to age associated muscle atrophy or decreasing height. It's important to know the limitations of tests, as they will influence your interpretation and interventions. This involves another very common method to assess body fat. They are very important to measure. They are reliable and valid. However, they become slightly invasive because it provides some touching but there are a range of sites that can be used to make the testing a little bit more comfortable. It involves measuring the two layers of subcutaneous fat beneath the skin, and it can provide an estimation of some overall fatness. I talked about reliability. It can have a small error. There's small error associated with every test, but the more you practice, and if you're likely credited level one anthropometrist, you've practiced enough that your error is acceptably low. There's a number of different summation sites. You have seven sites, which provides a good overall view of the body, but sometimes it might only be three or four sites, and sometimes there's an site model as well. We'll be practicing involved in the lab. Whilst it appears a fairly straightforward practice, it is important to practice to get a feel of, first of all, to get an accurate landmark, because there are specific sites that we take a measure. Then also to get a feel of what an appropriate pinch is. So we don't get sometimes it's easy to pinch the muscle inside the sample, which gives it a bigger ring in a lower ring. And if all measures are always taken on the right side of the body, where they can, ideally, we carefully measure and mark the site with a permanent marker. I grabbed this info between the thumb, index finger, just to get a slight fold. We replace the calipers just below that pinch, hold for two seconds and then release. And we do multiple measures at the same site to get valid readings. Some of the sites that we take would be the medzilla, the abdominal, the thigh, triceps and biceps, and it's also subscapular, suprailiac, medial calf, and suppress Mala so there are several methods by the number of different sites, whether it's 34678, and each different summation has a conversion to body fat percentage. So it depends on the number of access sites you have. Some can be uncomfortable for some people. So then you have different samples that you can use to know that the formulas give you body density, but you need to use the serum equation to convert percent with a series a published researcher from the 60s, and it's not the Apple program on your phone. Here are some other methods that you can use to value to test my body fat. So based on the clients that you work with or the sporting organization, they may have a different protocol. So it's important that you're familiar with one specific requirements, and also important that you keep using the same protocol. You cannot compare a three site to a seven site. You compare the three side to three side, or a seven side to seven side. As far as assessments go, gith measurement is about as basic as it can get. However, the power and the surface of the test, it's easy to learn, it's easy to administer. It inexpensive, and the value of information and the relationships to health, it's actually a really good test. As well as the waste, there's also a full body assessment, which will involve measuring other areas. So it's really important to practice these you're entering someone else's physical zone. You're touching. It's a minimal touch, but you're still touching. So whilst trying to accurately place a tape and read small writings, it can be quite challenging, so it's really important to practice these you can also measure a mid thigh, thigh, forearm and cut. I stated earlier there was a waist to hip ratio, and given the low cost of the test, information value is incredibly high. Higher scores of waste relative to keep circumference indicates higher abdominal fat, which is an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, and that's the android or apple shape that we talked about in the previous lecture. There are optimal ranges, and there's risk related to waste to heat ratios. So this is some really important information for such a non invasive and simple test, but also laboratory tests which become more complicated and provide more detailed information. So these include the scans hydrostatic weight, air displacement and biological impedance, which we'll go through now. So a dual energy X ray, or DEXA, is a low radiation X ray scan of the entire body, which can estimate body fat and bone density. It has mass less radiation than an x ray, and it's able to identify fat and bone and it can actually provide excellent detail on fat mass and really important information on bone density. So that bone density so that bone density information is quite important for specific populations. It could also be done in conjunction with a more frequently performed field test. There's a comparison, because it's expensive for them and requires professional expertise. For example, The Sporting Club might do one test in their preseason as a really detailed assessment. At the same time, they'll do skin folds, and they'll use that skin fold comparison to Dexter skin to track their athletes with multiple skin fold assessments throughout the season. Hydrostatic weighing. This is where the subject is weighed on land, and then when they land fully submerged in water, and relies on the difference between underwater and out of water weights and the density of the body and water displacement. This is not as popular due to the non population scans, due to the inconvenience of being weighed underwater, and it requires the specialized equipment that subject must also exhale or their air and then remain underwater, which makes it a somewhat difficult process. There's also air displacement, which was used to overcome the need to submit some of the water, and also calculated based upon weight and air displacement. But again, it's less popular test because it's time consuming and expensive. And finally, we have bio electrical impedance analysis. Now, whilst you could argue that this is a field measure rather than a lab measure, it does require a specialized piece of equipment. So that's what's included here. This is where a low level current is passed through the body to estimate the body fat percentage, given that lean tissue contains more water than fat tissue, the level of resistance to the current, indicating that lean versus fatness. This is certainly much cheaper than other lab based methods that's not as reliable and only provides a general measure of body composition. It could also be influenced by hydration status and even moisture on hair and clothes. So whilst we understand we try standardize all our tests, we can see that there's more errors can be introduced into a b by a test. So in summary, body composition can be assessed by field or lab tests. The field tests are cheaper, they're quicker and but they're less accurate than lab the lab much more accurate, much more detailed, but they can be expensive. They're also prohibitive for large groups, because the time requirements for the streets protocols, BMI home weight only, and that has a great relationship to health risk. So does he have to weight ratio, girth OS detects remains the gold standard for body composition. It is a little more expensive regarding specialized equipment and harder to get body composition. Assessment for exercise and sports science professionals is a really important tool in the assessment toolbox, and this will form part of our labs where we get a lot of hands on experience, learning how to do girths and skin vaults, learning to I'm encourage you to be involved in the lab as much as possible, to practice these skills. Thank you for listening to today's lecture if you have any questions, please ask your tutors or send His names. Thanks

too much damn studying ch7 bones and all that

too much SAT vocab

Save Flashcards Learn Test Blocks New Blast Match Worries about Kennedy during 1960 election Shortcut Press Space or click on the card to flip He was too young, inexperienced, and Catholic Track progress 4 / 58 Profile Picture Vera_Klochkova Top creator on Quizlet · Created 5 days ago 0:05 / 0:15 Students also studied Flashcard sets Study guides Practice tests Modern Era Review Teacher 167 terms Profile Picture PhillipsPHS Preview Civil Rights 69 terms Profile Picture apantis7 Preview Lecture Notes (History 5B-01 Final) 83 terms Profile Picture Samuel_Soohoo7 Preview Chapter #26 Quiz 10 terms Profile Picture pixelpirate87 Preview HIST 1302 Exam 3 40 terms Profile Picture jeremy1220045 Preview ap world unit 5 learning objectives & historical developments 11 terms Profile Picture Paul_Espinosa32 Preview history test 6 terms Profile Picture isabel_irwin9 Preview Neolithic Era: Turning Point in History 21 terms Profile Picture artisticallyselena Preview Unit 4 History Study Guide 24 terms Profile Picture crimsontraylor723 Preview ch. 28--29 45 terms Profile Picture leslierodriguez_24 Preview LOUISIANA HISTORY: Chapter 1, Lesson 4 34 terms Profile Picture frcramer Preview Mil History WEEK 1 7 terms Profile Picture SiahQuizzes Preview Ship Designations and Classes 41 terms Profile Picture sayers001 Preview Worldview and the History of Life 56 terms Profile Picture bbene792 Preview Key Events and Concepts of WWII and Human Rights 84 terms Profile Picture kaptsany27 Preview Chapter 16 Terms 20 terms Profile Picture A_ydunx Preview World War I Causes and Impact 38 terms Profile Picture quizlette76576101 Preview Euro 8.2 WW1 9 terms Profile Picture Daniela_Arana-Duenas Preview 9/11 Quiz 25 terms Profile Picture aprilsimmons8 Preview History WWII Test 19 terms Profile Picture vbaseball09 Preview Social Studies 5004 World History 49 terms Profile Picture anna_reimers7 Preview World History : Chapter 19 - 21 Vocab 39 terms Profile Picture aucletic Preview AP World History People 30 terms Profile Picture Allyson_Bell924208 Preview Final Exam for Global World History 56 terms Profile Picture Esme1058 Preview World History 7 terms Profile Picture plehmann2 Preview social studies 13 terms Profile Picture Amanda_Lin57 Preview AP U.S. History - Chapter 12 23 terms Profile Picture Mancan76 Preview Practice questions for this set Learn 1 / 7 Study with Learn Kennedy seemed cool & appealing, spoke to people - Nixon looked sickly, sweaty and uncomfortable Choose matching term 1 Engel v. vitale 2 Robert f. kennedy 3 Baker v. carr 4 Kennedy / Nixon Debate Don't know? Terms in this set (58) Your stats Still learning (58) You've started learning these terms. Keep it up! Select these 58 John F. Kennedy (JFK) 35th President - youngest man ever elected & first Catholic; won election by NARROW margin over Nixon; inspired HOPE in all Americans; assassinated in Dallas, Texas on Nov. 22, 1963 Robert F. Kennedy Attorney General of the US; he was JFK's younger brother and trusted advisor Kennedy / Nixon Debate Kennedy seemed cool & appealing, spoke to people - Nixon looked sickly, sweaty and uncomfortable Worries about Kennedy during 1960 election He was too young, inexperienced, and Catholic Camelot Was the name of a popular Broadway musical about King Arthur who fought to make things right -- "Camelot" came to represent the energetic, idealistic image of the Kennedy White House Why were many of Kennedy's proposals defeated in Congress? He did NOT have a strong mandate to push them through Mandate Public endorsement of a candidate's proposals -Kennedy did NOT have this b/c he won by slim margin; LBJ did have this, he won by a landslide 3 Goals of Kennedy's New Frontier (1) Improve the economy / cut taxes (2) Fight poverty / provide aid to the poor (3) Speed up the space program **He gave Americans HOPE for a better future Strategies JFK used to improve relations between US and developing countries Peace Corp & Alliance for Progress Peace Corps Federal programs established to send AMERICAN VOLUNTEERS to help developing nations around the world to raise their standard of living - would help them resist communism Alliance for Progress Program set up by JFK for the US and cooperating nations to send money to LATIN AMERICA in an attempt to help them resist communism Berlin Crisis Soviet leader Khrushchev tried to bully Kennedy (wants US out of Berlin) - Kennedy responds by building up the US military - Khrushchev responds by building the Berlin Wall Why did USSR build the Berlin Wall? Built by the Soviets in order to prevent the EAST GERMANS from fleeing to West Berlin for freedom Bay of Pigs Invasion - who planned it? Eisenhower - he approved plans for the CIA to train Cuban exiles as guerillas to invade Cuba Bay of Pigs Invasion - what happened? 1,400 Cuban exiles invaded Cuba on April 17, 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion - goal? To overthrow Fidel Castro, the communist leader of Cuba Bay of Pigs Invasion - outcome? The mission failed miserably - Kennedy's administration humiliated - Cuba gov't turned to USSR for protection from the US Cuban Missile Crisis The confrontation between the US and the USSR that brought them to the brink of a nuclear war What event started the Cuban Missile Crisis? American spy plane discovered Russian missile sites being placed in Cuba 4 options Kennedy had in handling the Cuban Missile Crisis 1) Do nothing & avoid immediate war 2) Attack and destroy missile site 3) Diplomatic pressure to remove missiles 4) Naval blockade (quarantine) How was the Cuban Missile Crisis resolved? Kennedy set up a naval blockade - Soviets backed off - Soviets agreed to remove missiles from Cuba - US agreed not to invade Cuba Results of Cuban Missile Crisis US promised to remove their missiles from Turkey, US & Soviets signed Limited Test Ban Treaty, US & Soviets establish "hot-line" for future crises Nikita Krushchev Soviet leader (1953-1964) during Berlin crisis and the Cuban Missile Crisis. He and JFK signed the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963, temporarily easing Cold War tensions Hotline Direct telephone line between US & Soviets that was set up after the Cuban missile crisis; direct line of communication between JFK & Khushchev Effect Cold War had on NASA US was losing the space war to the Soviets, US spent a lot of money on NASA and on science & math education in schools JFKs goal for NASA To land a man on the moon before 1970 Limited Test Ban Treaty An agreement between the US & Soviets, and 40 other countries, not to test nuclear weapons above ground; result of Cuban missile crisis November 22, 1963 President Kennedy was shot and killed Why did Kennedy's assassination deeply affect Americans? He represented hope for a better future Magic Bullet Theory Theory by Warren Commission that one bullet caused wounds in both Kennedy and Texas Gov. John Connally, who sat in the front seat of the presidential limousine Lee Harvey Oswald Ex-Marine & communist sympathizer who killed JFK in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963 - he was murdered two days later by Jack Ruby Jack Ruby Night club owner who assassinated Lee Harvey Oswald, he was suspected of having ties to Mafia What was the Warren Commission? A committee that investigated the assassination of President Kennedy Findings of Warren COMMISSION Determined that Oswald acted alone; 3 shots from the book depository Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) Vice-president to JFK; became the 36th president after Kennedy's assassination; reelected in 1964; domestic policy called the "Great Society" Great Society Johnson's domestic policy - series of legislative issues that included major poverty relief, education aid, healthcare, voting rights, conservation, urban renewal & economic development (his programs were a continuation of JFKs New Frontier plans) Criticism of the Great Society It spent too much money on the poor and it gave too much authority to Fed. gov't Equal Pay Act of 1963 Law that required both men and women to receive equal pay for equal work Civil Rights Act of 1964 A federal law that made discrimination illegal in voting, public places, schools and jobs VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) Federal program to send volunteers to help people in poor communities in the U.S.; includes Head Start pre-school program to help kids from low income families Medicare Federal program that provides health insurance for Americans 65 and older Medicaid Federal program that provides health insurance to poor Americans of any age who cannot afford it Immigration Act of 1965 Law that abolished immigration quotas and increased the number of immigrants allowed into the US What is the Warren Court? Supreme Court named after Chief of Justice Earl Warren during JFK's presidency - he overturned many old laws & rulings & established new legal procedures 5 matters supported by the Warren COURT Rights of the accused, voting rights, the poor, civil rights, religious freedom Apportionment Warren Court decision about the way seats in a legislative body are distributed among electoral districts Baker v. Carr Voting districts must be based on population - "one person, one vote" Engel v. Vitale Public schools can't require a school prayer because it defies separation of church and state Mapp v. Ohio Police required to have specific warrants in order to make arrests Miranda v. Arizona Criminal suspects must be informed of their right to consult with an attorney and of their right against self-incrimination Miranda Rule Ruling by the Warren Court that police must inform persons accused of a crime their legal rights Why LBJ won 1964 election by a landslide He ran against Barry Goldwater who threatened to use nuclear weapons (think of Daisy commercial) How did Johnson continue Kennedy's plan to eliminate poverty in the US He pushed to pass JFKs anti-poverty programs, such as the Economic Opportunity Act (including Head Start & VISTA) Relationship between Warren Court & Great Society Both dealt with the rights of the poor & disadvantaged Similarities between the New Frontier (JFK) & the Great Society (LBJ) Both focused on civil rights and helping the poor and elderly (believed federal gov't should help the less fortunate with their economic & social needs) Differences between the New Frontier (JFK) & the Great Society (LBJ) LBJ had a strong mandate in Congress and was able to get laws passed - JFK did not; LBJ focused on domestic policy, JFk more on foreign Panama Canal Zone Controlled by the US since early 1900's; in 1964, nationalist rioted & demanded US give up control - Panama President and LBJ negotiated treaties Invasion of Dominican Repbulic Attacks on Dominican Republic gov't by rebels. LBJ said it was fueled by Communists - sent 22,000 marines. Gov't & marines took control, attack over, provisional US gov't set up in 1965 Add or remove terms You can also click the terms or definitions to blur or reveal them Review with an activity About us About Quizlet How Quizlet works Careers Advertise with us Get the app For students Flashcards Test Learn Solutions Modern Learning Lab Quizlet Plus Study Guides Pomodoro timer For teachers Live Checkpoint Blog Be the Change Quizlet Plus for teachers Resources Help center Honor code Community guidelines Privacy Terms Ads and Cookie Settings Quizlet for Schools Parents Language English (USA) © 2025 Quizlet, Inc. COPPA Safe Harbor Certification seal Home Your library Notifications 2 MUSH Psychology 2023 Fall B Peri... 2023 Fall A Peri... Spanish 2H New folder Start here Flashcards Study Guides Practice Tests Expert Solutions Home

Too Much Light (Real)

William Wordsworth's "The World is Too Much With Us"

The World Is Too Much With Us – William Wordsworth

Too much context

"The World is Too Much With Us" By William Wordsworth (40-42)

. The last experimental. So this is going to involve the event relationship to between more variables. And do much changing on manipulating one of the variables theries as you already talked about both designs. And then we record or collect data, what obser the change in the dependent variable that result from our manipulation of the. That's what we're looking at. We're moving and sh and manipulating one and seeing if it causes an effects or change in the other. That's what we're looking for. So have experimental research, we are looking for causation not just correlation. We're not just looking to see due to variables moved together. No, we're actually looking to see if we make a change in one variable, do we see a subsequent change in the other word? If we make another change in that variable, we shift it more, we change it fast. We take it away. Do we need a consequential change in the independent variableag yet, okay, you're able to shift and manipulate the independent variable and consistently see a change of the dependent variables, then you know you have causation, a change in one causes a change in the other. They've already kind of gone over this multiple things, so I will just briefly say this again, but you've got the independent variable dependent variable, the independent ones you what we're going to manipulate and change, whatever. that looks like. um at a very simple level of experimental research, you can have one level of your independent variable, and then nothing, right? You can have your experimental group and your controller. The group that gets the treatment, that group that does not. So that is your very basic experimental research where you just have two groups and one of them is to control groups. But even still, you should see a change in the depependent variable to the group that is receiving treatment and you should see no change for the group that is not receiving treatment, right? That would be causation. Now, of course, you can have multiple levels of the independent variable, we're not gonna get too much into that. In this course, um, but two is kind of the minimal, right? treatment, no truth, and then you can move beyond that. The dependent variable is the one that is being measured. It is hopefully changing. If you see no change in the dependent variable when you're making changes to the independent variable, you've got a big problem, right? That means that your independent variable that you manipulating actually has nothing to do with the behavior that you're trying to observe. It doesn't impact it at all, and you're going to have no results, no adjacent. It's very disappointing. It does happen. and it's disappointing, but not happen. Um, so it is the uh the outcome orependent measure. Now, something I briefly mentioned that I have gone too much into depth, yet are the confounding variables, so the confounding or they're also called you probably heard them called extraneous variables. These are other variables, other than your independent variables. So anything that is not your independent variable can be a confounding variable, and it can cause and change in the dependent variable if you have not accounted for and controls something that has to be at and avoid it at all costs. Let's say let's say we're doing a study and we are trying to decrease the amount of smoking individuals engage. Hi, so we're trying to help them. We're trying to decrease their smoking paper. And our treatment is going to be some sort of meditation and relaxation techniques that they can learn because of that is based on the research that people smoke war when they're experiencing higher levels of stress. So how can we decrease their stress? Let's teach them various coping mechanisms, deb breathing techniques, meditation techniques, other things that they can do to decrease their stress and hopefully have a decrease in theopy behavior. Okay, great. So we implement our treatment. But what if we forgot to ask participants? if any of them had gotten pug onto to the doctor recently and had some maybe vac about their health, if they received some not so great news about their health, could that be a variable that is intacting how much they decide to smoke after that document? Absute, right? The doctors that said, hey, you' lungs are not looking for good, or you've got something precursors to cancer, we're gonna have to run some tests. That type of news could certainly impact someone who's smoking and could result in a change in their smoking behavior, they might leave that doctor's office and go, okay, wow, I really need to stop smoking. But if we didn't ask them that, we don't know. We don't have that information. So, we've moved forward, we implement our procedure and our treatment, and theyreased their smoking and we go, wow, our treatment works really great. Look at all these people that stop smoking. But in fact, all those people went to the doctor got not so great, there was a decided to not smoke, regardless of whether or not you taught them had a meditate break, right? That is a confounding variable that will throw your data because you did not account for it. Whenever we're doing a study like that, on any type of addictive behaviors for illness, if you're doing a medication study, you have to ask all of those questions. You have to get all of that information up front, because those are come down in variables that can change the behavior that you did not account for and you are not manipulating or control. So now we can't make the claim that if we um, you know, give individuals, um different mechanisms to decrease their stress, it will decrease their snow people. We can't make that claim anymore because that's not what caused the meaning. Or at least we don't know for sure that that's what we're doing. So confoundingles are a big bump. we run into these a lot, and I will tell you that when we are designing a research study um when you're working in a lab and you're working with researchers, it is intimidating to bring a research project to the lab. I mean, I did it a lot inad school. We were required to do this. You have to do this when you're doing research, but you bring your research question and your proposal for how you're gonna run your study to the lab. you put it up there and literally everyone in the room writs it apart. Everyone sits there for an hour or two and says, what about this confounding birdle? What about this? Well, this one's gonna throw your data. Well, this one's not gonna work. Well, you have an accountant for this, they rip it apart. It doesn't feel great in the moment. However, that is how you identify all of the compounding variables and you find a way to account. so that you have good data in the end. It's very important piece of research and experimental research specifically. We do want to avoid them at all costs. Okay, so here's another example. Let's say a researcher investigate whether giving students more time to study, reduces their tests anxiety. Okay. What is going to be the dependent variable here? What are we measuring? What are we looking at? We wouldn't want to take it again. Test anxiety. levels of anxiety when you're taking a test, right? That's what we're measure. We're trying to change that, okay? So that's gonna be the behavior that we're looking at. What is the independent variable here? Time to set, the amount of time that you're set, whatever that may be, okay? So the DV is test anxiety or levels of anxiety will take the test whatever you will word that, that's what we're measuring. Am amount of study time is what we're looking at for the independent version. Now, when you're taking a test, there are multiple things that happen that have nothing to do, maybe, with the amount of time you study. Can we reduce test anxiety by making sure that you study at least a minimum amount of time? Yes, we can reduce your test anxiety a little bit. But there are also other factors that if we if I was running this study as an experimental research, not just as like the naturalistic observation in a classroom, like let's just see if we can help. If I was actually running an experimental res research that many things that I have to account for. I need to account for type of tests. What if I get half of my participants, the tests is the morning and half of my participants the test in the afternoon? That's the I founding variable. Maybe the students in the morning are more stressed out because they didn't have time to relax in the morning and get ready for this test that I'm about to do them yet. Right? They're getting ready, they're in traffic, they're driving here, trying to park and so and so forth. Yes, we might run into that in the afternoon, but you still have got more time in the day. to get ready for it. So that's a confounding marriage, time of test. Another confounding variable would be temperature in the room. If it's too cold or too hot, you've got one room that's hotter, one room that's colder. That can impact someone's test anxiety. When you're feeling anxious, if I'm sure everyone has felt that feeling at one point in their life, it doesn't feel great to then also be hot and sweat. It usually makes that anxiety a little bit worse. You start to feel kind ofustrophobic and you're like, I don't know what's going on. I'm getting really hot. I don't feel good, I'm getting kind of dizzy, like, and your anxiety skyrock. right? So, I wanna make sure that the temperature in my room every time participants are taking the test, it has to be exactly the same, or usually within a couple degrees of the temperature. Okay, so these are just a few examples I can go on and on about all of the things that would impact you while you're having an exam that would impact your test anxiety. I need to help for all of those things, and every participant in all of my different groups would all have to have the same things so that I can truly say it was the amount of set. and it wasn't possibly due to during the room, time of the test, the room that they're in, how close they're sitting to each other and so on. and and that and that's part of the roofing unit ofart process, right? If I came to my lab and just said, oh, I'm gonna do this. They're like, well, what else, what else are you controlling for? I'm like, nothing, you know,'ll be fine. They're gonna rivet apart, right? All of those confounding variables that we need to account for. Um, a study involved investigating how manipulating the accuracy with which feedback is delivered, affects a number of work tasks that can be completed by college. So this is essentially, say, a student is doing a work task, and if I give you no feedback on that, as to whether you're doing it track, if I give you feedback that is correct and it matches, I say, yes, that's correct. or if I give you wrong feedbacks. So that's what we're talking about when we were saying a different type of feedback on your ability to complete a task. So, what is the independent variable here? What are we manipulating? Yeah, that's hypo feedback, right? We're gonna change that. It's gonna be different. What's the dependent variable that we're measured? It's the behavior we're looking at here? Yeah. Uh, number of work task. Correct, yes. How many workops did they actually complete? Do they get more done when they're getting positive feedback? Do they get more done when they're getting no feedback at all? You probably don't get more done when they're getting negative. You back would probably be my hypothesis, but we're gonna look at them, right? We're gonna count how many tasks they get done based on the type of feedback that they are given. And then we see how this impact that dependent varies. How does that impact the behavior that they're engaging? So, there will be questions like this on these things. This is like a perfect example. It will be this exact one, I'll change the words I'll change a thing. And I'll ask you these questions. What is the independent? What is the dependent variable? And sometimes I'll put a confounding variable in there and I'll say like, identify the confounding variable. and you'll hopulate pick one of the choices. So very similar to what I've test questions would look like for something like that. But the good to be able to look at examples and pull these things up about. If you're in any type of research class, statistics class, you need to be able to have this very uh, you guys could go over these ones.. I'm not gonna keep going, but you get you get this. All right. So experiments typically involve two groups at a minimum, which I talked about already, but you're gonna have atom minimum, your control group, and your experimental. The control group is a group of participants that does not receive the treatment. No treatment. Okay. Um, you don't change it. You essentially just measure their behavior, but you don't expose them to anything. Um, so work tasks with the feedback, that would be the control group is no feedback, okay? So we just allow the students to complete tasks as they normally would, we do not interject, we do not give the feedback one way or another. We just sort of let them carry on with their day as they normally would and we count how many works how they could. Versus, the experimental group are the ones that are going to receive some type of treatment. Now, as I've said before, minimally, you've got one experiment group and your control but you can have multiple experimental groups and a controll. And so you can have two or three different types of feedback. Those would be your experimental groups, and you can still have a group that received no feedback. if we're looking at study fine with students, you can look at, you know, two hours, four hours, six hours a week. Those are your experimental groups. the other students, you would sort of just allow them to either or you would prevent them from studying at all, or you just would not manipulate the study time for them, you would allow them to study however long they normally do and have them report on. So you would just basically specify that this group did not have a controlled set amount of set, and then they would report on how many hours they affected. versus the other three experimental groups would have a set amount by the time that you're controlled. Okay. Here's a question, a clinical psychologist conducts a study that involves ten people. He thinks he can cure depression by giving his science a particular type of drug. So he prescribes the drugs and finds his 60 days later, all clients show fewer signs of depression, as the psychologist includes he has cured depression. So what's the problem? There's a lot of problems here, but like, what's the main simple problem with what we understand in this particular research research? What has not been done? Yes.... doesn't describe. There is no controller, right? Every single person got the drug. There's no control group. So how do you know that that drug improved their depression? If you do not have a control group, you have no comparison to make, the whole point of having a control group, the whole reason we do it is so that if the drug does work, let's say that the psychologist is correct, this drug works, it cures depression. If you have a controlled group, we have a group of participants who didn't get the dress, what should happen for them? is someone over here? I take a guy? What should happen for people who are naked? Is it control with this? What do you expect? Yes. Yes, they should save the same, right? They're not getting the drugs. So they shouldn't get better. And then the people in the experimental group who are getting the drug if the drug works, they should get better. And you have that comparison. You now you can definitively say, okay, look at all these people that did not get the drug in my control group, they didn't get any better. The symptoms of depression persisted. But look at all of my participants, my experimental your, we saw a significant improvement in depression symptoms. Okay, now maybe you have a plane. But if you give the drugs to every single person, you have nothing to compare. How do you know what your drug is not something else that you're their depression? Maybe a bunch of people were unemployed and during that time that they were given the drug, they got a job. Back didn't improve someone's levels of depression, especially if it's a situational depression. course, there's a depression that is biologically, you know, that's a different type of depression, but there's also situational depression. And if you have an accountant for every single situation that person is in, those are confounding variables that can impact in this case, levels of depression. Do you know how control group, you have nothing to compare. You cannot make this. big problem. can't rule out any other expavation. So that's why minimally we always have to have at least a control group and an experimental group. And as I said, you can have more than that, but the bare minimum requirement, no treatment, treatment, control group, experiment. So when we use, um control groups and experimental groups, individuals are randomly assigned to each group, and I've kind of talked about this a little bit that the need for this in order to make sure that the participants in each group represents the larger population. That's the, right? You're never going to be able to access the entire population. You're not going to be able to access every single person who's ever experienced depression or has symptoms of depression in a drug site. You're going to have to randomly assign participants to certain groups and hope that they represent the larger population of people that experience symptoms of depression, right? So that is the point of random assignment to different conditions. Usually, the experimenter, I mean, ideally, the experimenter doesn't even know who's in which group, in a drug study that is ideal. We call it a double blind assignment where the participant doesn't know if they're getting a drug or not and the experiments or also does't know if they're getting the drug or not. Why? Because bias can be introduced? If they're participant thinks they're getting the drug, um, they can have sort of placebo effects, right? If you've ever heard of that, the placebo effects, or they think they're getting better because they're underlyression, they're getting the drug. researchers can also treat participants differently based on if they know who is getting the drug and who's not, and that will impact the data that they're collecting on that person's behavior. So, ideally, like the perfect scenario, nobody knows what's going on. There's a lab that assigns the drug and puts it in an envelope and assigns names, randomly and they give the envelope to their researcher and there's a red pill and there's a blue pill, but the researcher doesn't know which one is which. One could be trained it, one could be placebo, we don't know, and that's very important, but kind of nobody knows what's going on. until the end. And that's how you get the best data. out of something like this. Now, group should be comparable to each other. um, they should be assigned to the group based on Chancel, essentially. Um, usually we use some sort of computer programming to randomly assign numbers, two people and then randomly assign those numbers into the groups that were trying to produce. This can be very difficult to do. The smaller your participant pool, in fact, the more impossible this gets. So that's why a lot of research studies try to get so many participants and absorbid an amount of participants, um or why you need to run several studies to build your participant pool, before you can make any sort of claim about your data. because the smaller you participant pool gets, the less representative of the population they will be. because you do need to think about things like, um intelligence or um education level personality type socioeconomic status, ethnicity, um, their income, there's so many things that you have to think about and a smaller you participant will gets, the less representative of all of these things it will be. And then we run into the problem that your participants didn't actually represent the larger population, and your data really only applies to that very small group, and it cannot be applied to the larger group, which is always the goal. The goal of research is to collect data with a smaller amount of people, but you hope that you can go and apply those kinds and those results to the larger population. If you are looking for a drug that cares depression, you want those results to be good and to be representative of the larger population so that you can then produce a drug that can be distributed to people who have symptoms of depression and it cures them, right? You don't only want that drug to work for 60 people that you ran the side with, and that's it. and it doesn't work for anyone else. So, random assignment does help with this, but also large participant groups are going to make sure or ensure that you have a representative family of the larger published. Okay. yeah. So some other important things we have to considerable we're running research. and just terms that you should be aware of, so a confederate is someone who is employed by the researcher or is a researcher themselves that is going to participate in the study and pretend to be a participant. So they're gonna essentially take part in the study. um, the participants will not know that that person is a confederate, obviously it's a secret, so this involves some level of deception, usually in the study that we have to present to our review board and make sure that all of that is okay. But when you use a confederate, it's usually because you are conducting a study that people know they're being observed, they're going to change their behavior. So that's why we have confederates. When I was in grad school, a a grad friend of mine, she was in a different lab, and I was helping with her study. She ran this really interesting study on graphic Ed, so people would eat very, very fast. And I'm not just talking like, you know, kind of fast. We're talking like a burrit that big, is gone in one minute or less, like gone. And so, like barely chewing their food, like, wrap it, rapid, you. And as you can expect, there is a lot of health concerns that come first. We had some children who were rabbit eaters in that study. um there was significant choking hazards that had already occurred with some of those personents because they're eating much too fast, too large in bites. Um, but before we could run our study with children, we had to make sure that it was safe and it was not going to impact them too greatly, so we ran it with college students here on campus. Um and when we first started running it, you realized very quickly that they knew they were being observed, and so they were slowing down their eating. They were still eating fast, but it wasn't quite as fast as they had reported in their interviews when we were trying to pull participants. So what did we do? We got conf better. So we had a sticker researcher in there. and we left, so we who were identified as the researchers, we were like, hey, um, we're gonna be back a little later, and we're just we're gonna ask for your report on how fast you ate, but we gotta go. We'll be back later. Maybe pizza in the middle of the room, help yourselves. And then we actually had another researcher in there who was a participant, but she was a confederate. And she had to eat with them, which was difficult because she had to eat very, very quickly, so that they didn't know that she was a confederate. But that is an example of what we would do. Now, she had a time where she had different time on her too, that she was like collecting data for certain people in different sessions, so we could get a truer representation of how fast those people ate and their behavior was a different because they didn't know that they were being observed. So that is a perfect example when we could use the compatory. Um, replication and I've already sort of talked about this before, but we always wanna ask if we can rep replicate the results that have been found. This is extremely important. Scientific understanding is based on the accumulation of knowledge. The more knowledge we have, the more data we have on a on a body of research, the greater our scientific understanding is of that res research, of that behavior, of that phenomenon or theory, or whatever it is that we're investigated, the more research we have, the better we understand it. Replication is foundational to science moving forward. If we adjust did research for the heck of it, just to entertain ourselves to stimulate our reins or whatever research we just want to do, it doesn't help science, it doesn't move us forward at all. We have to publish it and then other scientists, other researchers have to replicate it and move the science forward. It's an extremely important part of research and without it, it really would kind of be pointless to do research at all. The point is to accumulate the knowledge and move the science forward. I've gonna talk about briefly about significant outcomes. If you take a statistical course, they get into this in great detail. But whenever we're looking at data, we're looking for what is called significant outcomes, statistically significant differences. We're not just looking for minimal differences between our groups, between our control group and our experimentsal groups, or even between our different experimental groups, we're looking for significant changes. big changes, changes that make a difference in people's lives. and a difference in their behavior changes, not just very small minuscule differences that maybe we can kind of say, well, there's a slight change. No, there must be a statistically significant dip. Now, of course, that is determined by the statistical analysis that are run. um, or if you're doing a study that's sort of based on kind of like a real world problem, um, things like when we work with children with autism and things like that, um, or any individual with a developmental disability, we're looking for um learning outcomes, so do they make significant jumps in their learning outcomes or their development? E cognitive or physical development, right? So they need to be meaningful differences as, you know, we're not just looking for tinyunicule changes, we're looking for meaningful, statistically significant differences between our groups. Experimental bias is something we always have to be aware of, these are going to be factors that could impact your dependent variable, a bias from the researcher, a bias from the in from the first incipant. Those can impact the data that you get in the way that they be hidden um any expectations that you are the persistent have can surely impact how they are behaving. We always need to account for that and make sure that we're, you know, making sure that doesn't do. Well is a false treatment. I've already kind of mentioned this before, but we typically see this with any sort of drug study um, but it's just the no treatment. They're given a pill that doesn't have any chemical properties to it, so it shouldn't impact their um system.? So if it impacts them in any way? That's what we need when we say alpha seat. And then finally, I've also talked about this already, but double blind means both the experimenter and the person do not know who's receiving treatment and who's not. That is the ideal standard to lose a another one in experiment, nobody knows. And it prevents

Unidad 3 - Verbos

Too Much Information #1

CT4-LECTURE 1- JAN 2025 OBJECTIVES Developmental Anatomy (Embryology): • Outline the stages of human growth and development, focusing on dental anatomy and root morphology. • Correlate developmental processes with hard and soft tissue formation in the oral cavity. Microscopic Anatomy: • Classify cells (cytology) and tissues (histology) based on their structure and specialization. • Evaluate the role of microscopic structures in maintaining oral health. GROSS Anatomy • Identify anatomical landmarks of the oral head and neck, including the TMJ, circulatory system, glands, and nervous system. • Describe the structures visible to the naked eye and their clinical relevance. Physiology: • Explain the functions of body systems and their integration in oral health. • Analyze the physiological processes affecting the oral cavity. 1/16/2025 3 Mitosis Meiosis One cell division Two cell division Produces two daughter cells Produces Four daughter cells Produces diploid cells Produces haploid cells Daughter cells are genetically identical Daughter cells are non- identical Produces body cells Produces sex cells • Mitosis and meiosis are both types of cell division. • Mitosis is how new body cells are produced, whereas meiosis is used to produce gametes (i.e. sperm and egg cells). first week Spermatozoa + Oocyte = Zygote (12-24hrs.) Cell division via mitosis = Cleavage 1st solid ball called Morulla Inside Morulla secretion of fluids becomes blastocyte (5days) Blastocyte has 2 regeions Trophoblast(peripheral cells) & Embryoblast layer(inner mass) CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR PREIMPLANTATION PERIOD •If any disturbances occur in meiosis during fertilization, major congenital malformations result from the chromosomal abnormality in around 10% of cases. •A syndrome is a group of specific signs and symptoms. PREIMPLANTATION PERIOD • After a week of cleavage, the blastocyst consists of a layer of peripheral cells, the trophoblast layer, and a small inner mass of embryonic cells or embryoblast layer. • The trophoblast layer later gives rise to important prenatal support tissue while the embryoblast layer later gives rise to the embryo. SECOND WEEK • A bilaminar embryonic disc • The superior epiblast layer is composed of high columnar cells. • The inferior hypoblast layer is composed of small cuboidal cells. THIRD WEEK • Primitive streak (rod shaped thickening) forms a bilateral symmetry within the bilaminar embryonic disc. • Some cells from the epiblast layer move or migrate toward the hypoblast layer only in the area of the primitive streak and become • Mesoderm, an embryonic connective tissue, and embryonic endoderm. END OF THIRD WEEK • With three layers present, the bilaminar disc has thickened into a trilaminar embryonic disc. • The epiblast layer is now considered ectoderm. • 3 germ layers • Ectoderm-becomes skin, nervous system, and neural crest cells. • Mesoderm-Becomes muscles, bones, blood, and connective tissues. • Endoderm-Forms internal organs like the digestive and respiratory systems. 1/16/2025 10 Neural Crest Cells & Mesenchymal Transition(dental tissue) • Neural crest cells are derived from the ectoderm during neurulation (around weeks 3-4). • NCC migrate and undergo epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), becoming highly migratory mesenchymal cells. • They contribute to the formation of facial bones, cartilage, peripheral nerves, and parts of the heart. 1/16/2025 11 Embryonic Period: Physiological Process(changes in structure &function) • INDUCE, PROLIFERATE, DIFFERENTIATE AND MORPH, DON’T WAIT! MATURE AND GROW, IT’S YOUR FATE!" 1. Induction The process where one group of cells influences another to differentiate into a specific tissue or organ. 2. Proliferation Rapid cell division, increasing the number of cells. 3. Differentiation(Cyto, Histo, Morpho) Cells specialize to perform specific functions. 4. Morphogenesis The development of the overall shape and structure of tissues and organs. 5. Maturation The final stage where tissues and organs reach their fully functional form. 1/16/2025 12 Facial Development  The facial development that starts in the fourth week of the embryonic period will be completed later in the twelfth week within the fetal period.  At the fourth week, the developing brain, face, and heart are noted. 1/16/2025 13 • All three embryonic layers are involved in facial development: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. • The upper part of the face is derived from the frontonasal process, the midface from the maxillary processes, and the lower from the mandibular processes. Early development of the face is also dominated by the proliferation and migration of ectomesenchyme, derived from neural crest cells (NCCs). Facial Development 1/16/2025 14 Stomodeum and Oral Cavity Formation With this disintegration of the membrane, the primitive mouth is increased in depth and enlarges in width across the surface of the midface. Nose and Paranasal Sinus Formation Apparatus Formation  First branchial/ pharyngeal arch also known as the mandibular arch and its associated tissue, includes Meckel cartilage.  Supplied by Trigeminal nerves Apparatus Formation  Second branchial/pharyngeal arch, which is also known as the hyoid arch, is cartilage like that of the mandibular arch, Reichert cartilage. Apparatus Formation  Third branchial/ pharyngeal arch  Has an unnamed cartilage associa ted with it. This cartilage will be responsible for forming parts of the hyoid bone. Apparatus Formation  Both the fourth and the sixth branchial /pharyngeal arch also have unnamed cartilage associated with them, they fuse and form most of the laryngeal cartilages. 1/16/2025 20 TOOTH DEVELOPMENT: INITIATION STAGE Stages of Tooth Development: I Bought Candy Bars After Midnight." I → Initiation Bought → Bud Candy → Cap Bars → Bell After → Apposition Midnight → Maturation 1/16/2025 23 1. Initiation Stage (Week 6-7): • Dental placodes form as localized thickenings of oral ectoderm. • Interaction with neural crest cells induces the formation of the tooth germ. 2. Bud Stage (Week 8): • The enamel organ invaginates into the underlying mesenchyme, creating a tooth bud. 3. Cap Stage (Week 9-10): • The enamel organ forms a cap-like structure over the dental papilla. 4. Bell Stage (Week 11-12): • Cells differentiate into ameloblasts (enamel-forming cells) and odontoblasts (dentin-forming cells). 5. Apposition and Maturation: • Enamel, dentin, and cementum are laid down and mineralized. 1/16/2025 25 • Dental Epithelium → Enamel Organ Enamel organ arises from the dental epithelium and forms ameloblasts, the cells responsible for producing enamel, the hardest substance in the body. Dental Mesenchyme → Dental Papilla Dental papilla forms from the mesenchyme and gives rise to: • Dentin -Odontoblasts: Cells that produce dentin (the layer beneath enamel). • Pulp: The soft, living core of the tooth, containing nerves and blood vessels. • Root Dentin: The dentin in the root of the tooth. Dental Follicle • Surrounds the developing tooth and forms: • Cementum: A calcified tissue covering the root of the tooth, anchoring it to the jaw. • Periodontal Ligament: Connective tissue fibers that hold the tooth in its socket and absorb chewing forces. Teeth w e a r c a n b e t r e a t e d A t t r i t i o n Abrasion Abfraction E r o s i o n Hunter-Schreger bands (HSB). • Hunter-Schreger bands (HSB): • Dark and light bands due to curvature or bends of the rods. • increasing the enamel’s strength. • Near the cusps or incisal ridges, where the enamel is the thickest Celiac Disease ˜ Dental enamel problems stemming from celiac disease involve permanent dentition and include tooth discoloration—white, yellow, or brown spots on the teeth—poor enamel formation, pitting or banding of teeth, and mottled or translucent-looking teeth. ˜ The imperfections are symmetrical and often appear on the incisors and molars. ˜ Tooth defects that result from celiac disease may resemble those caused by too much fluoride or a maternal or early childhood illness 1/16/2025 29 ROOT DEVELOPMENT  The process of root development takes place long after the crown is completely shaped, and the tooth is starting to erupt into the oral cavity.  The structure responsible for root development is the cervical loop.  The cervical loop is the most cervical part of the enamel organ, a bilayer rim that consists of only inner enamel epithelium (IEE) and outer enamel epithelium (OEE). ROOT DEVELOPMENT  To form the root region, the cervical loop begins to grow deeper into the surrounding ectomesenchyme of the dental sac, elongating and moving away from the newly completed crown area to enclose more of the dental papilla tissue, forming the Hertwig epithelial root sheath (HERS). Thus, HERS will determine if the root will be curved or straight, short or long as well as single or multiple. 1/16/2025 33 • Cervical Loop Formation ▪ The cervical loop, located at the junction of the enamel organ and the crown, elongates to form Hertwig’s Epithelial Root Sheath (HERS). ▪ HERS determines the shape, length, and number of roots. • Root Dentin Formation ▪ Inner cells of HERS induce adjacent dental papilla cells to differentiate into odontoblasts, which form root dentin. ▪ Once dentin is deposited, HERS disintegrates. • Epithelial Rests of Malassez ▪ After HERS disintegrates, remnants form clusters called epithelial rests of Malassez in the periodontal ligament. ▪ These remnants can sometimes form cysts later in life. PRIMARY DENTITION PROPERTIES  The actual dates are not as important as the eruption sequence, because there can be a great deal of variation in the actual dates of eruption.  However, the sequence tends to be uniform. Enamel Histology • Enamel tufts: Hypomineralized, Located at the dentino-enamel junction and filled with organic material. Forms between groups of enamel rods at the dentino-enamel junction. • Enamel lamellae are partially mineralized vertical sheets of enamel matrix that extend from the DEJ near the tooth’s cervix to the outer occlusal surface. Transverse section of enamel showing enamel tufts (white arrow) and enamel lamella (black arrow). Dentin Matrix Formation DENTINOGENESIS LPROCESS o$ CREATING DENTIN PRIMARY TEETH _ 14th WEEK of FETAL DEVELOPMENT PERMANENT TEETH L 3 MONTHS AFTER -PROCESS HAPPENS SLOWLY PERFORMED by ODONTOBLASTS —OUTSIDE INWARDS - BEGINS with MANTLE DENTIN ODONTOBLASTS -PREDENTIN -SOFT ORGANIC MATRIX -PROTEINS FIBROBLASTS -KORFF'S FIBERS -THICK COLLAGEN FIBERS -FRAMEWORK of DENTINOGENESIS 1/16/2025 39 Principal Fibers Protect, Gingival Fibers Guard." •Principal → Protection and anchorage of the tooth. •Gingival → Guard and stabilize gingiva. 1/16/2025 40 Principle Fibers "All Hungry Octopuses Appreciate Ice cream!" •All → Alveolar Crest •Hungry → Horizontal •Octopuses → Oblique •Appreciate → Apical •Ice cream → Interradicular 1/16/2025 41 Gingival Fiber : "Dentists Always Care Deeply for Teeth!" •Dentogingival •Alveologingival •Circular •Dentoperiosteal •Transseptal 1/16/2025 42 Primary (Deciduous) Teeth Eruption "Children Like Fruit Candy More" •C → Central Incisors •L → Lateral Incisors •F → First Molars •C → Canines •M → Second Molars CELL ORGANELLES SKIN ANATOMY COME, LET'S GET SOME BREAD" C ORNEUM (OUTER), L UCIDUM, G RANULOSUM, S PINOSUM, B ASALE. • Corneum - tough and protective. • Lucidum - clear layer (found only in thick skin like palms/soles). • Granulosum - cells with granules for keratinization. • Spinosum - "spiny" cells, providing strength and flexibility. • Basale - base layer where cell division happens. 1/16/2025 45 1/16/2025 46 Tooth Designation ∙ Commonly used in orthodontics, is the Palmer Notation Method, also known as the Military Tooth Numbering System. ∙ In this system, the teeth are designated from each other with a right-angle symbol indicating the quadrants and arch, with the tooth number placed inside. 1/16/2025 47 Mixed Dentition Period ∙ The mixed dentition period follows the primary dentition period. ∙ This period occurs between approximately 6 and 12 years of age. ∙ Both primary and permanent teeth are present during this transitional stage. ∙ The final dentition period is the permanent dentition period. ∙ This period begins with shedding of the last primary tooth. 1/16/2025 48 General Dental Terms •Each dental arch can be further divided into two quadrants, with four quadrants in the entire oral cavity. • The correct sequence of words when describing an individual tooth using a D-A-Q-T System is based on the tooth within its quadrant: D for dentition, A for arch, Q for quadrant, and T for tooth type. • Sextants: three parts according to the relationship to the midline: right posterior sextant, anterior sextant, and left posterior sextant. 1/16/2025 49 Root Axis Line (RAL) ∙ Root axis line (RAL), which is an imaginary line representing the long axis of a tooth, drawn in a way to bisect the root (and thus the crown) in the cervical area into two halves. 1/16/2025 50 Restorations: Biologic Width ∙ Biologic width is the distance established by the junctional epithelium and lamina propria attachment to the root surface of a tooth. ∙ This distance is important to consider when fabricating dental restorations, because they must respect the natural architecture of the gingival attachment if harmful consequences are to be avoided. ∙ Assessment for biologic width can be made clinically by measuring the distance between the bone and the restoration margin using a periodontal probe. 1/16/2025 51 PRIMARY DENTITION 1/16/2025 52 1/16/2025 53 Eruption 1/16/2025 54 1/16/2025 55 1/16/2025 56 Differences-(Enamel depth/pulp) 1/16/2025 57 Differences: Roots 1/16/2025 58 Importance of Primary teeth - PRIMATE Space 1/16/2025 59 Leeway Space 1/16/2025 Primary Occlusion 60 •Majority of children have Mesial step between distal of Primary 2nd molars. Mandibular 2nd molars are situated mesially than maxillary. •A smaller but still large group of children exhibit a flush terminal plane. The distal surfaces of the primary 2nd molars are even with each other. •A still smaller minority have a distal step. The mandibular 2nd molars are situated more distally than their maxillary counterparts. Thus, they form a distal step. 1/16/2025 Anatomy of Primary teeth 61 Incisors: resemble the outline of permanent counterpart except Primary do not have mamelons on the incisal ridge and there are no pits on the lingual surface. 1/16/2025 Primary Canines 62 Canines- resemble the outline of their permanent counterparts. The maxillary canine has a sharp cusp and appears especially wide and short. Maxillary Central and Lateral Incisors Central Incisors: • Larger overall; they are the widest teeth mesiodistally in the anterior maxillary arch. • Crown is more symmetrical and fan (mesiodistally wider compared to incisocervical length). • Lingual fossa is less pronounced. • Cingulum is well-developed and centered. • Root is shorter and more conical, with a blunt apex. • Rarely exhibit significant variation. Lateral Incisors: • Smaller and narrower mesiodistally than the central incisors. • Crown is less symmetrical and more rounded. • Lingual fossa is deeper, with more pronounced marginal ridges. • Cingulum is narrower and often slightly off-center to the distal. • Root is longer and thinner, with a more pointed apex. • Frequently display developmental variations (e.g., peg-shaped lateral incisors, congenitally missing). 1/16/2025 66 1/16/2025 67 1/16/2025 68 1/16/2025 69 CLASSIC TRAITS ➢ From the occlusal view, molar crowns taper from the buccal to the lingual EXCEPT for maxillary 1st molars. ➢ From the occlusal view, molar crowns taper distally; this allows more of the occlusal surface to be visible from the distal aspect than the mesial. ➢Maxillary molars have 3 roots: MB, DB, and lingual (palatal). The lingual root is usually the longest and the DB is the shortest. ➢ Mandibular molars have 2 roots: a long mesial root and a slightly shorter distal root. ➢ The root furcation on mandibular molars is close to the cervical line, making the root trunk shorter than on the maxillary molars. MAJOR AND MINOR CUSPS ➢In general, each cusp is formed from its own lobe. ➢Major cusps are large and well developed. ➢Minor cusps are less developed and have smaller proportions. They are less functional than the major cusps and may not always be present. ➢Supplementary cusp is very small and completely afunctional. They are rarely present. 1/16/2025 72 ➢First molars are the most highly developed and largest of the molars and more likely to have major, minor and supplementary cusps. ➢Both the 1st and 2nd maxillary molars have 4 major cusps but only 2 are visible from the buccal view. ➢The longest of the 4 major cusps are the ML, followed by the MB, DB, and the shortest DL (if present). 1/16/2025 73 • Molars (general: crowns larger, squarer, bear more cusps than any other tooth class, have multiple roots, 3rd molars sometimes mistaken for premolars) • Generally speaking, the maxilla molars go from largest to smallest (1st molar to 3rd molar) in size and morphology. The crowns generally have 4 cusps. • The 1st molar has three roots (two buccal and one lingual, which when seen from the buccal position the lingual root comes into view in the middle of the two buccal roots). The occlusal surface is described as a rhomboid in shape with 4 distinctive cusps. • Oblique ridge max molars only and transverse ridge one on max 2 on mandibular. • The 2nd molar has three roots but the two buccal roots are nearly parallel with each other and is described as heart shape in the occlusal view. • The 3rd molar has three roots present but the two buccal roots are often fused, and the outline of the occlusal surface is also described as a heart shape. The 3rd molar also shows greater developmental variation than either the 1st or • 3rd molars are often the tooth that is congenitally missing. All roots of the molars angle distally with respect to the major crown axes (White & Folkens 2005: 152). 1/16/2025 74 1/16/2025 75 Joint Movement ˜ Two basic types of movement of the mandible are performed by the TMJ and its associated muscles of mastication: ˜ a gliding movement and ˜ a rotational movement. 1/16/2025 76 • The muscles of mastication include the • Temporalis, • And Masseter, • Pterygoid muscles, medial and lateral. • These muscles are involved in mastication using these two movements. 1/16/2025 77 1/16/2025 78 TMD: Acute Episode • Trismus or the inability to normally open the mouth. • When the patient tries to close and elevate the mandible, the condylar heads cannot move posteriorly because both the bony relationships prevent this, and the muscles have become spastic. 1/16/2025 79 Overjet • Overjet is measured in millimeters with the tip of a periodontal probe, once a patient is in CO. • The probe is placed at 90°or at a right angle to the labial surface of a mandibular incisor at the base of the incisal ridge of a maxillary incisor. 1/16/2025 80 • Overbite is measured in millimeters with the tip of a periodontal probe after a patient is placed in CO. • The probe is placed on the incisal edge of the maxillary incisor at 90º or at a right angle to the mandibular incisor. • When the reverse is the case and the mandibular arch and its incisors extends beyond the maxillary arch and its incisors, it is causes an underbite. 1/16/2025 81 Lymph Nodes • The lymph flows (arrows) into the lymph node through many afferent vessels. (A is first comes in) • On one side of the node is a depression, or hilus, where the lymph through fewer vessels, or even a single efferent vessel. (E is Exit) • Primary or Secondary. • Region drains into primary nodes. • Primary nodes, in turn, drain into secondary nodes (or central nodes). Lymphatics: General Drainage pattern of body Right jugular trunk Left jugular trunk Enters venous system near junction of left subclavian vein and left internal jugular Thoracic duct Left side of head, neck, thorax, entire abdomen, pelvis, lower extremities Enters venous system near junction of right subclavian vein and right internal jugular Right side of head, neck, thorax *Lymphatic vessels are small and directly drain tissues and connect lymph nodes. *Lymphatic ducts are much larger, receive lymph from many lymphatic vessels, and drain into the venous system. 1/16/2025 83 Superficial Lymph Nodes of the Head (five categories) 1. Facial; lie along facial vein. 2 Superficial Parotid; superficial to parotid gland. 3. Anterior Auricular; anterior to external auditory meatus. 4. Posterior Auricular; posterior to external auditory meatus. 5. Occipital; lie in the occipital region. *Tissue drainage: buccal mucosa, skin of zygomatic and infraorbital regions, scalp, external ear, lacrimal gland Deep Lymph Nodes of Head (two categories) 1. Deep Parotid; lie deep in the parotid gland, superficial to the masseter muscle 2. Retropharyngeal; posterior to the pharynx at the level of the atlas (first cervical vertebrae). *Tissue drainage: parotid gland, paranasal sinuses, hard and soft palate, middle ear Superficial Cervical Lymph Nodes (4 categories) 1. Submental; inferior to the chin in the submental space. 2. Submandibular; along the inferior border of the mandible, superficial to the submandibular salivary gland 3. External Jugular; along the external jugular vein, superficial to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. 4. Anterior Jugular; along the anterior jugular vein, anterior to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Tissue drainage: 1.Submental and submandibular; teeth and related tissues, apex and body of tongue, anterior hard palate, floor of mouth, lips, chin, sub- mandibular and sublingual glands, cheeks. 2. External and anterior jugular; superficial tissues in the anterior and posterior triangles. Deep Cervical Lymph Nodes (2 categories) 1. Superior Deep Cervical; lie along internal jugular vein, superior to the omohyoid muscle. *Jugulo-digastric- becomes enlarged when a palatine tonsil or the pharynx is involved in infection. 2. Inferior Deep Cervical; lie along internal jugular vein, inferior to the omohyoid muscle. *Jugulo-omohyoid-drains the submental region and base of the tongue. Additional Deep Cervical Nodes 1. Accessory; lie along accessory nerve 2. Subclavicular; lie along clavicle. *Tissue drainage: mostly secondary nodes 1/16/2025 88 Sequence of lymph nodes draining various tissues Most of face, scalp, ear, orbit, sinuses, nasal cavities Most maxillary and mandibular teeth and associated tissues, apex and body of tongue, floor of mouth, sublingual and submandibular glands, lips Maxillary third molars and associated tissues, base of tongue, pharynx, tonsils Tissue Primary nodes Secondary nodes Submental and submandibular nodes Facial, anterior auricular, retroauricular, occipital superficial and deep parotid, and retropharyngeal nodes Submandibular, deep cervical nodes Retropharyngeal, deep cervical nodes Neck and cervical viscera Superficial and deep cervical nodes Right jugular trunk Right subclavian vein Left jugular trunk Left subclavian vein Thoracic duct Endocrine-secrete substance into blood, examples-adrenal gland pituitary gland, thyroid gland Exocrine-secretes substance through a duct leading outside the body (digestive tract, skin). Examples- sweat glands, salivary glands, mucous glands, pancreas Where are the salivary ducts located intraorally? Parotid (Stensen) duct opening > Parotid Papilla. Submandibular (Wharton) duct opening Sublingual Caruncle. Plica Sublingualis Sublingual Caruncle Parotid Papilla Sublingual duct opening - Via Duct of Bartholin → Sublingual Caruncle. OR Via smaller Ducts of Rivinus > Plica Sublingualis. Thyroid and Parathyroid glands (endocrine) Thyroid: 1.Located inferior to the larynx along the sides of the trachea. 2. Has 2 lobes, connected by an isthmus. 3. Secrets thyroxin which influences metabolic rate Parathyroid: 1. Four small glands located on the posterior aspect of the thyroid gland. 2. Secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium and phosphate levels. Thymus 1. Located in the thorax and anterior region of the base of the neck, deep to the sternum and sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles. 2. Involved in the maturation of T-cell lymphocytes 3. Shrinks in size with age Teeth and Periodontium Commonly Involved in Clinical Presentations of Abscesses and Fistulae 1. Abscess in maxillary vestibule or palate, 2. Penetration of nasal floor 3. Abscess in nasolabial skin region 4. Penetration into maxillary sinus 5. Abscess in buccal skin region 6. Abscess in mandibular vestibule 7. Abscess in submental skin region 8. Abscess in sublingual region → Any maxillary tooth (except maxillary canines for palate) • Maxillary central incisors → Maxillary canine → Maxillary molars • Maxillary or mandibular molars → Any mandibular tooth • Mandibular incisors → Mandibular molars with short roots superior to mylohyoid Teeth/Periodontium and Spaces Possibly Involved With Various Clinical Presentations of Cellulitus Location Space Involved Teeth/Periodontium Involved Infraorbital region Zygomatic region Buccal region Buccal space Maxillary premolars, and maxillary and mandibular molars Submental region Submental space Anterior mandibular teeth Submandibular region (unilateral) Submandibular space Posterior mandibular teeth Submandibular region (bilateral) Submental, sublingual Submandibular spaces Spread of mandibular dental infection Lateral cervical region Parapharyngeal space Spread of mandibular dental infection 4 major routes 1. Spread to the paranasal sinuses 2. Spread by the vascular system 3. Spread by the Lymphatic system 4. Spread by spaces Bacteria can spread through the blood from infected dental tissues to other areas. (1) An infected thrombus (blood clot) can travel as an embolus and spread infection. (2) Transient bacteremia (presence of bacteria in the blood) can occur during dental treatment. For example, a needle advanced too far during an attempt at PSA block can penetrate the pterygoid venous plexus after being inserted through infected tissue (needle track contamination). (3) The pterygoid venous plexus drains the dental tissues and communicates with the cavernous sinus via the inferior ophthalmic vein. (4) Infections in dental tissues can initiate an inflammatory response, which can result in thrombus formation, blood stasis, and increased extravascular pressure. (5) Veins in the head do not have valves, so backflow of blood carrying pathogens into the cavernous sinus can occur. Cranial Nerve Names & Function Names: "Only One Of The Two Athletes Felt Very Good, Victorious, And Healthy" Function: "Some Say Marry Money, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most" 1. Only (Some) = Olfactory (S) 2. One (Say) = Optic (S) 3. Of (Marry) = Oculomotor (M) 4. The (Money) = Trochlear (M) 5. Two (But) = Trigeminal (B) 6. Athletes (My) = Abducens (M) 7. Felt (Brother) = Facial (B) 8. Very (Says) = Vestibulocochlear (S) 9. Good (Big) = Glossopharyngeal (B) 10. Victorious (Brains) = Vagus (B) 11. And (Matter) = Accessory (M) 12. Healthy (Most) = Hypoglossal (M) Blood Branching of Carotid Arteries from Aorta Common Carotid Arteries To upper limb Subclavian artery Subclavian artery Brachiocephalic trunk Aortic arch From heart To thorax, abdomen, legs Blood Flow LAB RAT LEFT ATRIUM=BICUSPID RIGHT ATRIUM= TRICUSPID Right ABC'S THE AORTIC ARCH GIVES RISE TO -BRACIOCHEPHALIC TRUNK COMMON COROTID ARTERY SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY Left: carotid & subclavian LUNG BAGHT PULMONARY ARTERY PILNONARY WEIN TRICUSPID VALVE L E F T LUNG S U P. VENA CAVA AORTIC ARCH LEFT PULMONARY ARTERY RIGHT ATRIUM PALMONART PULMONARY ARTERY LEFT ATRIUM PULMONARY VINN PELNONARY WEIN LEFT VENTRICLE RIGHT VENTRICLE B L O O D FLOW THROUGH THE HEART MITRAL VALVE I N 2 MINUTES INF. VENA CAVA Foramina, Canals, etc. Traversed by Various Blood Vessels Vertebral artery- transverse foramina in cervical vertebrae, foramen magnum Internal carotid artery-carotid canal, foramen lacerum, groove for the internal carotid artery Maxillary artery-terminates in pterygoid fossa Posterior superior alveolar artery-posterior superior alveolar foramina Infraorbital artery-inferior orbital fissure, infraorbital groove, infraorbital canal, infraorbital foramen Sphenopalatine artery-sphenopalatine foramen, incisive canal, incisive foramen Descending palatine artery-divides into greater and lesser palatine arteries which traverse same named foramina Inferior alveolar artery-mandibular foramen, mandibular canal Mental artery-mental foramen Mylohyoid artery-mylohyoid groove Ophthalmic artery-optic canal Anterior and posterior ethmoid arteries-anterior and posterior ethmoid foramina Middle menningeal artery-foramen spinosum Internal jugular-jugular foramen EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY LINGUAL- → SUPRAHYOID → DORSAL LINGUAL → SUBLINGUAL → DEEP LINGUAL - TONGUE - SOFT PALATE - SUBLINGUAL SALIVARY GLAND - MUSCLES ATTACHED to HYOID ARTERIAL SUPPLY: FACIAL- - MAXILLARY (3 PARTS) → ASCENDING MANDIBULAR PART: PALATINE → INFERIOR ALVEOLAR → TONSILAR - LOWER TEETH - CHEEK → SUBMENTAL - MYLOHYOID → GLANDULAR BRANCHES MUSCULAR PART: → SUPERIOR LABIAL → MASSETERIC → - MASSETER → INFERIOR LABIAL → DEEP TEMPORAL → - TEMPORALIS PTERYGOPALATINE PART: - SOFT PALATE - PALATINE TONSIL - ROOT of TONGUE - SUBMANDIBULAR & SUBLINGUAL SALIVARY GLANDS - LIPS → DESCENDING - HARD PALATE PALATINE - SOFT PALATE → POSTERIOR SUPERIOR ALVEOLAR - PALATINE TONSIL - UPPER PREMOLAR & M O L A R S → INFRAORBITAL → - UPPER TEETH It gives off six branches before it divides into two terminating branches. They are in ascending order: • superior thyroid, • ascending pharyngeal, • lingual, • facial, • occipital, and • posterior auricular. The two terminating branches are the • maxillary and • superficial temporal arteries. Lingual artery supplies the tongue, Floor of the mouth and suprahyoid muscles. FACIAL ARTERY 1) The facial artery runs anteriorly and superiorly near the labial commissure and along the lateral side of the naris of the nose. 2) The facial artery terminates at the medial canthus of the eye. 3) Supplies the face in the oral, buccal, zygomatic, nasal, infraorbital, and orbital regions. o Cervical – Ascending Palatine, submental and tonsillar o Facial branches – Glandular (submandibular), Angular, Superior Labial & Inferior labial *Face, palate, tonsils, submandibular, stylohyoid, digastric muscles Maxillary artery Acessory middle meningeal artery Masseteric artery Middle meningeal artery Deep temporal arteries Pharyngeal artery - Artery of pterygoid canal Sphenopalatine artery Infraorbital artery Anterior superior alveolar artery Deep auricular artery Anterior tympanic artery Inferior alveolar artery Mylohyoid artery Posterior superior alveolar artery Greater palatine artery Lesser palatine arteries Buccal artery Lingual branch Incisive branches Mental artery • 1st Mandibular part • 5 branches → Retromandibular foramen • 2nd Pterygoid part • 5 branches → Infratemporal foramen • 3rd Pterygopalatine part • 6 branches → Pterygopalatine foramen Epicranial Surprise Orbicularis oculi Closing eyelid and squinting Corrugator supercilii Frowning Orbicularis oris Closing and pursing lips as well as pouting and grimacing Buccinator Compresses the cheeks during chewing Risorius Stretching lips Levator labii superiori s Raising upper lip Levator labii superiori s alaeque nasi Raising upper lip and dilating nares with sneer Zygomaticus major Smiling Zygomaticus minor Raising upper lip to assist in smiling Levator anguli oris Smiling Depressor anguli oris Frowning Depressor labii inferi oris Lowering lower lip Mentalis Raising chin protruding lower lip Platysma Raising neck skin and grimacing Class I Malocclusion •The MB cusp of the maxillary first molar occludes with the MB groove of the mandibular first molar. Facial profile as described by many clinicians with the older term mesognathic. Class II Malocclusion Class II malocclusion (distoclusion) MB cusp of the maxillary first molar occluding (by more than the width of a premolar) mesial to the MB groove of the mandibular first molar. • The older term for describing the facial profile in Class II, division I, is retrognathic. Class II Malocclusion Division I Division II • Based on the • Position of the anterior teeth. • Shape of the palate • Resulting facial profile. Class II Malocclusion Division I maxillary incisors protrude facially from the mandibular incisors causing a severe over bite (or deep bite). Upper incisors are tilted outwards, creating significant overjet. Division II Protrusive maxillary incisors, the maxillary central incisors are either upright or retruded. Upper incisors are labially inclined. Class III Malocclusion The MB cusp of the maxillary first molar occludes (by more than the width of a premolar) distal to the MB groove of the mandibular first molar. • The older term that describes the facial profile with a Class III malocclusion is prognathic.

Unit 1 Mercantilism -Economic relationship where the mother country has tight economic control -England's goal was to maximize wealth and power Navigation Acts -Laws that prevent colonies from trading/selling or buying from other countries Salutary neglect -Good neglect -GB was backing off the colonies - Not military or trade Middle Passage -2-3 month voyage -15% died on the ship -slaves are captured and chained together Enlightenment - A movement started in Europe by a small group of intellectuals -discussed thoughts, wrote books, and sent them to America. -Influenced America -believed there was a natural solution to every problem54rat vc Diests -Not a religious group -Believed there was a creator -Believed the creator was gone now, standing outside human experience, or just gone -Therefore, there is no reason to pray or go to church John Locke -English Philosopher -Believe every person has natural rights -Life liberty and property -Believed if the government wasn’t respecting these rights, the people could overthrow it Benjamin Franklin -Liked John Locke's Ideas -Freed slaves because of Lockes’ ideas -Referred to America as slaves to GB that should be freed Great Awakening/Pietism -A Christian movement stressed individual connection to god -didn’t like the king being the head of American churches -people required by law to attend church and pay taxes to the church -The revival movement started with thousands of people outside of the church -rejected English church system French and Indian War (including impacts on revolution) -Conflict between France and England -native american tribes helped both sides -Colonies were on the coast, french was on the inland -Settlers tried to move west and ran into french -France had a fur trading empire Sugar Act -Not the amount that mattered, it was the principal -A small tax on sugar -Re-enactment of molasses tax -People couldn't protest because they would be caught illegally trading it Stamp Act Tax on anything sold that was made out of paper It is not a huge amount but it affects a lot of people Stamp Act Congress Group of middle-aged educated men -made legal arguments -no tax w/o representation -No jury trial = not right -very respectful Sons of Liberty -young, violent, rowdy people, -South out by Stamp Act -bullies, terrorist-esk -Paid to do the calm group dirty work Declaratory Act -said that GB had the right to tax the colonies -warning official statement -one year after the Stamp Act was repealed Townshend Acts -taxed people on four things -paper -paint -glass -tea -GB argued they needed the money -affected virtually every American Non-Importation -Didn’t buy or use anything British -Loyalists were targeted with violence -Idea to shut British down economically Daughters of liberty -used gender-based skills -Women made their clothes and clothes and made others if they couldn’t Boston Massacre -Lots of British soldiers + SOL on streets -Soldiers surrounded and attacked with snowballs, rocks, bottles, pavement -A gun raised in the air to shoot, the smoke clears and 5 dead -exaggerated the event to send a message, made into propaganda -made out to be a completely random attack on Americans Tea Act -Lowered the tax on tea -GB had an economic problem with the British East India Tea Company -Made British tea the cheapest tea Committees of Correspondence -Properganda and social media -Coordinated the riders to spread the propaganda to other areas -the message was to not fall for the British tea -many SOLs took part in this -made physical threats to British ship captains. Boston tea Party -Ships in Boston harbor waiting for soldier escort -SOL disguised themselves as Native Americans -At night dumped a lot of pales of tea into the harbor -342 chests of tea destroyed, major financial loss for GB Coercive (Intolerable) Acts -Nicknamed intolerable acts by patriots -Boston Port Act (shut down harbor) -Ma. Gov. Act (shut down all colonial gov) -New Quartering Act (sent more soldiers, colonists had to house them) -Administration of Justice Act (soldiers who committed a capital crime would go to GB for trial) 1st Continental Congress -hoped to go to war but not independence. -rep from every colony except Georgia -3 things were decided -organize militias -keep boycotting -meet again in spring Loyalists (Tories) -Completely loyal to GB -snitch on patriots -⅓ of colonists Paul Revere -Rode from Boston to Concord -warned British soldiers were coming (bc patriots were gathering weapons) -Soldiers were going to break up the weapon-gathering Minutemen -Middle-aged men + teenage sons w/o military experience -said they'd be ready in a minute if needed Lexington and Concord -Militia started shooting soldiers who were taken by surprise -Casualties on both sides (273 GB) (95 Patriots) -The British retreated to Boston, and people shot them along the way 2nd Continental Congress -Met in May 1775 -Decided three things -no more militias, make a continental army -Continue boycotting -2 groups would send letters to the king -The” Olive Branch Petition” asked the king to step in, no war, but reverse British policy -” Declaration of causes of taking up arms” reasons why they’d fight -The King messaged both groups “I will crush you” (basically), which united both groups. Thomas Paine’s Common Sense -50 page pamphlet convincing the middle group to join the patriot cause - Is it in the interest of a man to be a boy all his life? -A gov. Of our own is our natural right ‘tis time to part. -Question, why do you obey the king? Thomas Jefferson/ Declaration of Independence -Jefferson wrote it with help from Franklin and Adams -Gave a list of reasons for independence -used “he” to target people's anger towards the king -” life liberty and the pursuit of happiness” -Helped more colonists to join the patriots. War of Attrition/George Washington -Not play by rules -make it difficult for the enemy - make the British think the war is stupid and give up Battle of Trenton/Battle of Princeton -British in NYC, Americans in Pennsylvania -On Christmas night patriots crossed the Delaware River, a surprise attack. -Heschians surrendered. Battle of Saratoga/General John Burgoyne - Burgoyne was overconfident in himself and told soldiers to bring family and friends -Got ambushed by minutemen at Saratoga, minutemen attacked the back of the basic parade situation happening. -John Burgoyne escaped, not defeated. Funding the Continental Army -borrowed money from France and other British enemies -borrowed gold and silver but they were afraid to raise taxes -printed money, not worth face value causing insane inflation Treaty of Paris (1783) -Treaty negotiation took 2 years Formally recognize that GB no longer had claims in North America, and USA is not a country All land won in french- Indian War was now American American fishing ships were allowed to fish in GB waters off the coast of Canada If GB Freed slaves they had to give them back Both countries had access to the Mississippi River America agreed to not persecute or bother loyalists (agreed to but not followed) Loyalists after the war -A lot of them left -Many went to Canada - A small group went to England -Few went to the British West Indies -Some stayed, had to keep their mouths shut, and live American Established churches after the war -Freedom of religion was prominent -Religion was big -Church of England turned into Episcopalion Chuch Unit 2 Mixed Government -people feared too much democracy -elect people to represent them, a democratic republic System of checks and balances Articles of Confederation -first constitution -four things, Power to form army and navy Power to declare independence and war Power to establish diplomatic relationships between nations Right to handle sidputs against the states. -did not include the right to tax Northwest Ordinance of 1787 -Procedure on how territories would become states The adult white male population of 5,000 in the territory could send a non-voting rep to Congress Could become a state when the adult white male population is 60,000 Write the state constitution and apply for statehood Shays’ Rebellion -Daniel was the leader -farmers fed up after fighting in the war, and the debt wasn't their fault -tried to overthrow the Ma. state government -4,000 state soldiers fought the farmers, they won after months Virginia Plan -James Madison's plan at the Constitutional Convention -congress with two parts upper/lower house -reps depended on the state's population New Jersey Plan -William Patterson plan -Single-house legislature -equal representation Connecticut Compromise -take both ideas and mush them together -Senate, equal representation -house of reps, based on population -electoral college ⅗ Compromise -Decided after the electoral college system was decided -Southern states wanted slaves to count towards pop, the North did not -a slave counted as ⅗ of a person for electoral college + house of reps Difference between Federalists and Anti-Federalists -Federalists wanted to ratify the constitution and have a strong central government -Anti-federalists had two problems with the constitution Wanted states rights Wanted individual rights Federalist Papers -Hamilton, Jay, and Madison wrote anonymous essays -Convince people to approve the constitution -Helped to gain support Bill of rights -wrote to please the anti-federalists -includes the first ten amendments -worked, and it was ratified Thomas Jefferson vs. Hamilton on the Constitution -Jefferson had a strict interpretation, this meant following it to a t. -Jefferson meant this to limit the power of the constitution -Hamilton had a loose interpretation, which meant unless the constitution says no, they can do it -This meant to stretch the power of the constitution Hamilton's financial plan 1. Report on Public Credit, This addressed all levels of debt People could give paper money to the government and they'd redeem it at face value. Or people could give loan certificates back and provide a new one with interest. 2. Report on a national bank Established a national bank that held money at taxes Should be a large government institution 3. Report on manufactures Not adopted Use money to get new manufacturing businesses going Jay's Treaty -George Washington sent John Jay to negotiate for a stop to the bullying of ships at sea -A last resort, ended with GB saying they’ll stop and start trading with the USA Whiskey Rebellion -Corn farmers in Pa. angry because of corn prices and attempt to overthrow the state government -Washington sent 15,000 federal troops and he led them himself to send a message XYZ Affair - Adams tried to make a treaty for American ships being bullied, sent a rep to France -Prime minister rep refuses to meet with our rep -Adams tried again and sent three more reps who again denied - Democrats in Congress accused Adams of never trying to negotiate -Adams told them what happened and replaced their names with XYZ Aliens and sedition acts 1. Naturalization act, had to live in us for 14 years to apply for citizenship (previously 4) 2. Alien Act On suspension, non-citizens could be deported to their country of origin 3. Alien EnemiesAct If at war, us could deport migrants without suspension 4. Sedition Act. Made sedition a crime, if convicted $2,000 or two years in jail Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions/ Nullification -Declared states had fundamental rights that the federal government could not infringe -Stated that states could nullify laws that they viewed as unconstitutional Revolution of 1800 -Think about Hamilton's musical. -Adams and Jefferson run again, Burr comes in third, and Jefferson (after a tie) wins. - Adams did not put up a fight when leaving before the inauguration. Louisiana Purchase -Louisiana territory purchased from France for $ 15 million -Neoplean realized he didn’t care about the western hemisphere, and sold it to make a profit Lewis and Clack Expedition -An expedition to explore the Louisiana territory -Wanted to learn about the weather, terrain, native Americans, etc. -Ended on the Oregon coast at Fort Clatsop. -A very peaceful trip they brought presents for tribes, brought Sacagawea 2 Reasons Burr became infamous -Challenged and killed Hamilton in a dual -Fled to the Mississippi River area -plotted to overthrow that area and become dictators with James Wilkonson Troubles with Britain and France at Sea -GB had impressed 8,000 American sailors -Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act of 1808 which halted trade with the countries but backfired. War Hawks and their goals -Young men who wanted to expand US land -Get Canada and Florida -they were very aggressive and would go to war for this -Jefferson's party. Causes of the Way of 1812 The -US gov said it was the bullying of ships at sea and native americans -Historians say it was the war hawks wanting to expand land. Treaty of Ghent -Established in 1815 for the War of 1812 -established no real winner or loser and everything would go back to normal. -historians think this is why GB stopped bullying our ships. Hartford Convention -Federalists met up during the war to discuss secession -made them look like traitors after the war -capitalized on the unpopularity of the war Eli Whitney -Creator of the cotton gin -made it when American cotton and slavery were declining -caused both those things to expand exponentially Missouri Compromise -Henry Clay -Union had a perfect balance of slave and not slave states -Missouri would be upset about this -had Missouri join as a slave state -Main break off from Ma. and become a free state In the long term, any state joining below the 36, 30 would be a slave state Rush-Bagot Treaty -By John Quincy Adams -Established the north border of the US after Canada and the states expanded fully Adams-Onis Treaty -John Quincy Adams -treaty with Spain -US bought Florida Monroe Doctrine -Established European countries had to stay out of the western hemisphere -No new countries -Helped GB by letting them have land uncontested -in return, GB would protect the us Election of 1824 (corrupt bargain) -3 presidential candidates none had the majority but Jackson had the most -Clay had the least about of votes but was the speaker of the house -made a deal with Adams that if Clay endorsed him Clay could be Sec of State. -Made Adamss an unpopular president John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and the “American System” 1. Protective Tariff 2. Internal improvements (roads canals etc.) 3. A national bank Andrew Jackson's views of the American System 1. the tariff was a conspiracy against the South because they were more agricultural 2. the roads and canals were fine but he’d rather the states fund them 3 . The national bank was corrupt and run by wealthy people to stuff their own pockets Tariff of Abominations -Jackson had lost an election and wanted to win this one had Southern support but not northern -gained support by making a tariff (helped him gain support in the north) Kitchen Cabinet -Jackson did not trust his cabinet -never held a cabinet meeting -Held meetings with friends around the kitchen table instead Spoils System -Fired everyone -put his followers in government positions -no one was qualified for the positions they gained Second Part system (democrats vs. Whigs) -emerged in the 1830’s -whigs: - Less extreme federalists -anti-andrew Jackson -more elitist party (educated + wealthy) -democrats stayed the same (party of the south) Panic of 1837 -An economic depression caused by Jackson partially when he removed all the money from the national bank -Also by the tariff of 1828 -made it harder for GB and USA to do business they pulled out of investments and business Election of 1840/ Williams Henry Harrison -Whigs finally only ran one person who was a war hero to draw more people in -Harrison won but got pneumonia and died a month into his presidency John Tyler’s Presidency -VP to William Henry Harrison -hated by both parties -he was a Democrat but ran as a Whig because he got screwed over by Jackson -Whigs hated him because he was a Democrat and vice versa American Colonization society -Abolitionist movement -thought that they would buy slaves off their owners and return them to Africa -only 6,000 slaves were freed and they founded Liberia Though blacks and whites couldn’t or shouldn’t live together Nat Tuener’s Rebellion -Nat Turner is a slave who never did anything wrong to his master -had a vision from god -several plantations revolted at the same time -made plantation owners paranoid and more strict -All escaped slaves were eventually killed or returned to their plantations Theodore Dwight Weld/ Angelina Grimke #powercouple -Theodore was a minister abolitionist and had an audience because of that -Angelina was born and raised on a plantation but moved to the north to be an outspoken abolitionist Manifest DestinyNorthernersrs and Southerners agreed on this -Assumption that the US would expand to the [acific and central land -seen as good and pure Fifty-Four fort or fight -A line of latitude -Wanted all of Oregon country and they would fight for it James Polk -A president from Tenesse that no one knew -Ran on getting Texas and Oregon -Said he would and only served on term General Winfield Scott -General in the Mexican-American war -Had a secret amphibious operation that they went from Vera Cruz to Mexico City -took over Mexico City and Mexico surrendered Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo -Polk could have taken all of Mexico and had pressure from Southerners to do so -He only took Texas Election of 1848 -Polk didn’t rerun -the whig Zachery Taylor won, he was a southern slave owner who was a general -Democrats ran Lewis Cass who was a northerner and not pro-slavery. Popular sovereignty -Lewis Cass’s view on slavery and expansion -Appealed to the people in the middle -When a state entered the union they would vote on being a slave or free state California Gold Rush -Gold was found in California in 1848 and many people moved there -California didn’t agree with the Missouri compromise Gadsden Purchase -bought the southern part of Arizona -originally wanted more but the Mexican government talked them down Compromise of 1850 -5 parts -only two important -the admission of California as a free state -passage of the fugitive slave act Unit 3 Election of 1852 -Pierce was the democratic candidate who won because Whigs were divided over slavery -Whigs won General Winfield Scott who was anti-slavery which some whigs didn’t like Kansas-Nebraska Act/Stephen A. Douglas -Stephen was trying to be a great compromise like Clay -Proposed that Kansas and Nebraska become states and use popular sovereignty -The South was happy because those states never had a chance to be slave states and now they did -The North was worried about the South and formed a new political party to replace the Whigs (republicans) American (know nothing) Party -3rd party who was anti-immigrant and anti-catholic -Thought the Irish were going to try to take over America as Catholics -leaders told them to respond with “know nothing” when asked about what their party was about Bleeding Kansas -Lawrence Kansas was a free town -Slavery supporters attacked Lawrence, killed, burned buildings, raped people. -the goal was to terrify the anti-slavery side John Brown –A very serious abolitionist who thought god was using him to end slavery -Took four of his sons and two other men to get revenge for Lawrence Kansas -Went to pro-slavery people houses who had nothing to do with the attacks -Dragged the men of the families onto the lawn and killed them The caning of the summer (Charles Sumner) -An abolitionist senator who gave a speech on the Senate floor –called out important people like President Pierce and SC Senator Andrew Butler (old guy) -Butler’s relative Preston Brookes got revenge for Butler by caning Charles Sumner Election of 1856 (Buchanan vs. Fremont) -Buchanan (D) was northern but pro-south -Fremont was the other candidate -Buchanan was a dough face who got all of the South and some of the North so he won -Fremont was a free soiler Lecompton Constitution -Pro-slavery people met in Lecompton to write a state constitution or Kansas -Sent to DC House of reps and President Buchanan publicly endorses it anyways –House people didn’t endorse it because it was completely fraud. Dred Scott -Scott was a slave taken from south to north and argued he could be free -The Supreme Court was dominated by Southerners and decided against Scott -implied slavery could be taken anywhere. Lincoln-Douglas Debates -Debated slavery in the Senate race. -Lincoln from Illinois condemned slavery but his priority was the union -Douglas was a moderate, liked popular sovereignty - Lincoln thought slaves should have rights in the Constitution, and Douglas fell back on popular sovereignty and he won Election of 1860 -Abraham Lincoln won - beat out Douglass Secession -SC started secession and the deep South followed -Feb. 1862 all southern states succeeded -The South considered themselves a new country, but Lincoln did not. Crittenden Plan -Buchanan supports this -Congress tried to stop secession by: -Extend Missouri compromise line -never try to abolish slavery -North rejected it Fort Sumter -Lincoln is the president -Confederates said if the US didn’t evacuate by a certain time they would attack it -kicked off the Civil War, confederacy got control of the fort -no deaths or injuries -April 12, 1861 Jefferson Davis -President of the Confederate States of America -War of attrition with an underdog mentality -related the confederacy to the US and the US to Britain First Battle of Bull Run (Manasses) -Virginia in July 1961 first major battle -north was confident but had to run away because they lost -Disaster for the north Antietam -On northern territory -24000 died in one day -both sides lost -Lincoln decides to fire McClellan (northerners didn’t understand why) How the Union and Lincoln Prepared for War -Held a draft halfway through the war -Many rich people hired other people to serve for them -made income taxes -sold bonds, tariffs, borrowed money from money from other countries How the Confederacy and Davis prepared for war -South doesn’t have a strong gov -Davis struggles to get buy-in -Wealthy people didn’t want to contribute so most of the taxes fell on the middle class -Had to seize things from plantations by force -economy struggled Emancipation Proclamation -Abraham Lincoln did this to end slavery and save the union -slaves started escaping and joining Union troops when they were near -So many slaves were freed that the Union didn’t know what to do Battle of Vicksburg/General Ulysses S. Grant -Grant was not the general yet -Grant took Union ships and covered them in iron which worked -allowed grant to move eastward Significance of the Battle of Gettysburg -Took place in Gettysburg Pa. -As far as the North as the South ever got -The confederacy started to get pushed backward after this -end of the Confederate success Role of African American Soldiers At the start of the war, they were not allowed to help -end of the war became 10% of Union troops -Fought in segregated units but were enthusiastic about fighting -paid less than white soldiers Ulysses S. Grant’s War Strategies -Considered controversial techniques -Total war strategy -Willing to lose his own men's lives, throw them at the enemy -Since the North had more soldiers than the South he could do that Shenandoah CampaignThe goal was to not kill civilians but destroy everything but life -Sunandoah was close to N+S border -found civilians who were helping confederates ride into the north and did this to them. Election of 1864 -Lincoln didn’t think/wasn’t expected to win -switched his VP to a Southerner who was pro-union -George McClellan ran against him for revenge -General William Sherman captured Atlanta and burned it to the ground which was a positive surprise and led to lincolns reelection William T. Sherman’s March to the Sea -After burning down Atlanta he marched to the Atlantic and destroyed everything they came across -Didn’t destroy Savannah because it was too beautiful -After getting to the Atlantic they marched north to SC after still no surrender Appomattox Court House -Lee was still fighting with few soldiers and Grant sent him a message to surrender to save lives -They surrendered in the biggest house in town and Grant was very gracious during it -Grant was a little star-struck Lincolns Reconstriction Plan -General Ambassy (forgiveness) except for high-ranking officers -If 10% of the white men in the states took an oath of elegance the state could write a new state constitution and rejoin the union -Required the abolition of slavery Radical republicans -Republicans had a large amount of power -The” Wade-Davis Bill” included no Confederate unions that could return to power, in the state got. Couldn’t have anyone who rebelled in any way, the Republic Party would establish itself as a strong party in the South, protect former slaves -Lincoln pocket vetoes this, just ignored it Andrew Johnson Reconstriction Plan -VP to Lincoln and became president when Lincoln was assassinated -Oath of allegiance to return to the union -no high-ranking officials or wealthy plantation owners could become citizens -Would have to ratify the 13th to be reinstated -All property taken during the war would be returned, except for the slaves Black Codes -Discriminatory laws keeping AA’s in an inferior position -Couldn’t have slavery but could keep them incredibly low Freedmen's Bureau Bill -A bill Johnson Vetoed -Attempt to give land in the South to freed slaves 14th Amendment -Vetoed this civil rights bill -Gave African Americans citizenship -Johnson encouraged the South to not ratify it but it passed -South argued it didn’t mean African Americans could vote. Reconstriction of Act 1867 -Republicans had a 3/1 majority in the senate -Johnson vetoed but congress overode it -Troops to protect African Americans and enforce laws 1. Divide south into military districts 2.” supervise” new states constitution writing 3. Protect black men's right to vote Tenure of Office Act/Johnson impeachment -Congress passed this act to make it easier to impeach Johnson -Made it so the President couldn’t fire cabinet members without congressional approval -Johnson went to fire Edwin Stanton and many reporters were there so there was evidence -used to impeach Johnson, but he was not removed Election of 1868 -Ulysses S. Grant was a Republican with no political experience but was popular because of the war -Surrounded himself by good advisors -Ran under the “National Union Republican Party” -Wanted to help African Americans -Did not want to treat Confederate leaders harshly 15th Amendment -Gave African American men the right to vote -Congress made this a requirement to rejoin the union -Women thought they be included but they weren’t Sharecropping -Freed slaves would rent farming spots on plantations -Plantation owners loaned out supplies and animals and took advantage of their inability to read -Slaves had to spend all they made on rent and since they still had a loan with the supplies and animals they couldn’t leave legally Ku Klux Klan -Not allowed to be in the open so they wore sheets to conceal their identity -They tried to scare African Americans into what they believed to be their place -Other groups like this existed too Election of 1876/ Rutherford B. Hayes -Rutherford B. Hayes (R) Samuel Tildon (D) -Neither candidate got the majority but Tildon was one vote short -Republicans set up Bipartisan committee ti find election fraud -Decided there was fraud in SC, LA, and FL and gave those votes to Hayes who then won Plessy vs. Ferguson (1896) Booker T. Washington's views on segregation (Accommodationists; Atlanta Compromise Adress) W.E.B Dubois’ views that disagreed with Washington

The World is too much with us by Wadworth (1807)