AP U.S. History - Unit 7, Topic 2: American Imperialism (1898-1945)
Definition of Imperialism
Expansion of a country’s political, economic, and military influence over another.
U.S. begins imperial expansion with the purchase of Alaska (1867) for $7.2 million (known as "Seward’s Folly").
Discovery of gold in 1898 increases interest in expansion.
Westward expansion mindset extends beyond the continent after the closing of the frontier.
Arguments for Imperialism
Economic Interests
Desire for raw materials (e.g., gold in Alaska).
Need for new markets to sell American goods (manufactured & agricultural).
Social Darwinism
Belief that stronger nations naturally dominate weaker ones.
Expansion seen as a way for the U.S. to become a world power.
Racial & Religious Justifications
Josiah Strong's book Our Country (1885):
Argues Anglo-Saxon race is superior and must “civilize” others.
Expansion is a Christian duty to spread Western civilization.
Military & Strategic Reasons
Alfred Thayer Mahan’s The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890):
Nations with strong navies dominate world affairs.
U.S. builds a steel navy and seeks territories for naval bases.
Leads to the race for Pacific and Caribbean islands (e.g., Hawaii, Guam, Philippines).
Arguments Against Imperialism
Self-Determination
Nations should have the right to govern themselves.
Same argument used by Americans to justify independence from Britain.
Tradition of Isolationism
George Washington’s Farewell Address warned against foreign entanglements.
Expansion could lead to unwanted wars and conflicts.
Racial Concerns
Debate over whether the Constitution follows the flag:
If the U.S. takes over a territory, do its people become American citizens?
Many anti-imperialists opposed granting rights to non-white populations.
Key Takeaways
Imperialists supported expansion for economic, military, and ideological reasons.
Anti-imperialists opposed it on the grounds of self-determination, isolationism, and racial concerns.
The debate shaped U.S. foreign policy and led to further territorial acquisitions, setting the stage for U.S. involvement in global affairs.
End of Notes.
The Spanish-American War & American Imperialism
Background: The American Empire
Late 19th-century industrialists and politicians sought U.S. expansion.
Cuba, a Spanish colony, was a key target for expansion.
1895: Cuban nationalists rebelled against Spain, but Spain crushed the revolt.
Yellow Journalism & the Path to War
Yellow Journalism: Sensationalized news stories exaggerated Spanish atrocities in Cuba.
Key figures: Joseph Pulitzer & William Randolph Hearst
Encouraged U.S. intervention on humanitarian grounds.
1898: The U.S.S. Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 200+ Americans.
Yellow journalists blamed Spain, fueling war fever.
Later investigations found the explosion was accidental.
President McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain; Spain agreed but the U.S. declared war anyway.
The Spanish-American War (1898)
Short war: America won and emerged as an imperial power.
Effects of the war:
Cuba gained independence, but the Platt Amendment gave the U.S. the right to intervene militarily.
Philippines annexed after U.S. forces, led by Theodore Roosevelt, defeated Spain.
Filipinos, expecting independence, rebelled under Emilio Aguinaldo → Led to the Philippine-American War (1899-1902).
Hawaii annexed (1898) for strategic reasons (midpoint to the Philippines).
The Open Door Policy (1899)
China was divided into European spheres of influence.
U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent the Open Door Note to European powers, requesting equal trade access in China.
Outcome: European powers did not reject the request, so the U.S. claimed success in securing trade rights.
Significance
The Spanish-American War marked the U.S.’s entry into imperialism.
The U.S. expanded its influence globally through military power and economic policies.
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The Progressive Era (1890s-1920s)
Main Idea: The Progressive Era was a time of social, political, and economic reform in response to issues caused by industrialization, urbanization, and corruption. Progressives believed government intervention was necessary to fix these problems.
Who Were the Progressives?
A diverse group: Protestants, feminists, labor leaders, African Americans, journalists
Focused on issues like:
Big business power (monopolies)
Economic instability (Panic of 1893)
Labor conflicts (strikes)
Political corruption (machines like Tammany Hall)
Jim Crow segregation
Women’s suffrage
Alcohol prohibition
Muckrakers (Investigative Journalists)
Exposed corruption and poor conditions in society
Upton Sinclair - The Jungle (unsanitary meatpacking industry)
Ida Tarbell - Exposed Standard Oil’s unfair business practices
Jacob Riis - How the Other Half Lives (urban poverty and tenement conditions)
Political Reforms (Expanding Democracy)
Secret Ballot – Ended political bosses controlling votes.
Direct Election of Senators (17th Amendment, 1913) – Senators now elected by the people instead of state legislatures.
18th Amendment (Prohibition, 1919) – Banned alcohol (led by groups like the Anti-Saloon League).
19th Amendment (Women’s Suffrage, 1920) – Gave women the right to vote.
Initiative, Referendum, Recall – Gave citizens more power to propose, approve, and remove laws/politicians.
Government Efficiency & Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor’s "Scientific Management" (Taylorism) – Applied efficiency techniques to government & industry.
Black Progressives & Civil Rights
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – Legalized segregation (“separate but equal”).
Niagara Movement (W.E.B. DuBois) – Advocated for immediate black rights.
NAACP (1909) – Fought for racial justice through legal action.
World War I (Unit 7, Topic 5)
Causes of U.S. Involvement in WWI
War Begins (1914): After Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated, two alliances formed:
Allied Powers: Britain, France, Russia (formerly Triple Entente)
Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (formerly Triple Alliance)
U.S. Neutrality: Initially stayed out of the war but faced mounting pressure due to events:
Sinking of the Lusitania (1915): A German U-boat sank a British passenger ship, killing 128 Americans. Public outrage followed, but neutrality was maintained.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: Germany resumed sinking ships, including American vessels.
Zimmermann Telegram (1917): Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico, promising to help regain lost territory if the U.S. joined the war. The U.S. intercepted the message, pushing Wilson to act.
U.S. Declares War (1917)
April 2, 1917: Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to declare war to “make the world safe for democracy.”
American Expeditionary Forces (AEF): Led by General John J. Pershing, U.S. troops bolstered Allied forces and played a crucial role in turning the tide of the war.
End of the War & Treaty of Versailles (1918-1919)
November 11, 1918: Armistice signed, ending fighting.
Treaty of Versailles (1919):
Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points, advocating for self-determination, freedom of the seas, and the League of Nations.
Britain and France sought to punish Germany, leading to harsh reparations and restrictions.
League of Nations created, but the U.S. did not join due to congressional fears of being dragged into future wars.
World War I: The Homefront (Unit 7, Topic 6)
Total War & Mobilization
The U.S. fully mobilized its economy, industry, and society for war.
War Industries Board: Managed labor & factories to produce war supplies.
Food Administration: Regulated food production for soldiers and civilians.
Rural-to-urban migration increased as people sought industrial jobs.
Civil Liberties & Government Control
Espionage Act (1917) & Sedition Act (1918): Criminalized anti-war speech & draft resistance.
Schenck v. United States (1919): Supreme Court ruled speech creating a "clear and present danger" (e.g., resisting the draft) could be restricted.
Government censored reports on the Spanish Flu to maintain war morale.
The First Red Scare (1919-1920)
Fear of communist infiltration after the Russian Revolution.
Palmer Raids: Over 6,000 suspected radicals, labor leaders, and immigrants arrested; 500+ deported.
Immigration Restrictions
Emergency Quota Act (1921) & National Origins Act (1924): Limited immigration, especially from Southern/Eastern Europe & Asia.
Rooted in nativism (opposition to immigrants, especially Catholics & Jews).
The Great Migration
Large numbers of Black Americans moved from the South to Northern cities (e.g., Chicago, New York) for job opportunities & to escape Jim Crow laws.
Faced discrimination & race riots in the North (e.g., 1919 race riots, Tulsa Race Massacre (1921)—300 Black people killed, 10,000 homeless)
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