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📚 FULL REVIEW SHEET: Ethics & Meaning of Life 🏛️ Aristotle’s Ethics (Virtue Ethics) 🔹 The Golden Mean (Virtue = Balance) Aristotle believed that moral virtue is a balance between two extremes: Excess (too much) Deficiency (too little) 👉 Examples: Courage = between cowardice (too little bravery) and recklessness (too much) Generosity = between stinginess and wastefulness ✔ Key idea: Virtue is not one-size-fits-all—it depends on the situation and requires judgment. 🔹 Habits & Character We are not born virtuous Virtue is developed through practice and repetition “We are what we repeatedly do” 👉 If you act honestly repeatedly → you become an honest person ✔ This is why habits are central to Aristotle’s ethics 🔹 Instrumental vs Intrinsic Goods Instrumental goods = useful for achieving something else (ex: money, tools, education) Intrinsic goods = valuable in themselves (ex: happiness) 🔹 Happiness (Eudaimonia) Aristotle’s ultimate goal: eudaimonia (flourishing) Not just pleasure → a life of reason and virtue ✔ Happiness = Living morally Using reason well Achieving your full potential ⚖️ Kant’s Ethics (Deontology) 🔹 Core Idea: Duty Over Consequences Immanuel Kant believed: Morality is about doing your duty NOT about outcomes or happiness 🔹 Maxims A maxim = your personal rule for acting 👉 Example: “It’s okay to lie when it helps me” 🔹 Categorical Imperative The most important rule: 👉 Only act on maxims you would want to become universal laws Ask yourself: “What if everyone did this?” ✔ If it creates a contradiction → it’s immoral 🔹 Treat People as Ends Another version: Never treat people as means only Always treat them as ends (valuable individuals) 🔗 Free Will & Determinism 🔹 Determinism All events are caused by previous events Your actions are the result of: Biology Environment Past experiences 🔹 Hard Determinism No free will exists Everything is predetermined 🔹 Soft Determinism (Compatibilism) Free will can exist with determinism You are free if you act without coercion 🔹 Libertarianism (Free Will Theory) Humans have true freedom We are not fully determined 🔹 Beliefs, Desires & Freedom Actions come from: What you believe What you want 👉 Debate: If these are determined → are we really free? 🔹 Coercion When someone is forced by external pressure 👉 Examples: Threats (gunpoint) Blackmail ✔ Coerced actions = not fully free 🔹 Free Will & Moral Responsibility We can only be held responsible if: We had control We acted freely 🧠 Existentialism & Meaning 🔹 Jean-Paul Sartre Key Idea: 👉 “Existence precedes essence” You are NOT born with a purpose You create yourself through choices 🔹 Human Nature No fixed human nature Humans are radically free 🔹 Anguish Deep anxiety from: Total freedom Total responsibility 👉 You are responsible for everything you choose 🔹 Meaning of Life No built-in meaning You must create meaning yourself 🪨 Sisyphus 🔹 Sisyphus Punished by rolling a rock uphill forever The rock always rolls back down 👉 Represents: Meaningless or repetitive life Human struggle ✔ Often used in existentialism: Even in absurdity → we can create meaning ✝️ Arguments for the Existence of God 🔹 Ontological Argument (A Priori) Anselm of Canterbury Based on logic alone God = “greatest possible being” If God exists in the mind → must exist in reality ✔ No observation needed 🔹 Design Argument (Teleological) William Paley World is complex and ordered Like a watch → implies a watchmaker 👉 Therefore → God exists 🔹 The Problem of Evil If God is: All-powerful All-good 👉 Why does evil exist? ✔ Challenges belief in God 🔬 Scientism & Naturalism 🔹 Scientism Only science gives true knowledge 🔹 Naturalism Everything is explained by natural causes No supernatural explanations 🔹 Impact on Free Will If everything is scientific → maybe free will is an illusion 😊 John Stuart Mill & Utilitarianism 🔹 John Stuart Mill Focus: maximize happiness 🔹 Higher vs Lower Pleasures Higher Pleasures: Intellectual (reading, thinking, learning) Lower Pleasures: Physical (eating, comfort) ✔ Key idea: 👉 “Better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied”

Hume and Kant: Philosophy Practice Flashcards

KANT ETHICS – DETAILED ONE-SHEET STUDY GUIDE Natural vs Moral Philosophy Natural = studies what IS (facts, science). Moral = studies what OUGHT to be (right vs wrong behavior). Is vs Ought IS = descriptive facts (ex: people lie). OUGHT = moral claims (ex: people should not lie). Description vs Prescription Description = explains reality. Prescription = gives rules or commands. Who does ethics apply to? Applies to rational beings (people with a WILL). A will = ability to make choices based on reason, not just emotion. Unconditional vs Conditional Goods Unconditional = always good (good will). Conditional = depends on how used (intelligence, wealth, happiness). Intrinsic, Unconditional, Complete Worth Intrinsic = valuable in itself. Unconditional = good in ALL situations. Complete = needs nothing else to be good. → ONLY the GOOD WILL meets all three. Talents & Fortune Talents (intelligence, courage) = can be used for good OR bad → conditional. Fortune (money, success) = only good if used morally. Happiness Happiness = pleasure or satisfaction. NOT morally reliable → bad people can be happy. → Therefore, happiness is conditional, NOT the highest good. Good Will Acting from duty because it is right. Even if the outcome is bad, the action is still morally good. Function of the Will Not to achieve happiness, but to act morally. Types of Actions From inclination = based on feelings/desires → NOT moral. From duty = based on moral law → morally good. Imperatives Hypothetical = “If you want X, do Y” (conditional, based on desires). Categorical = “Do this” (universal, no conditions). Categorical Imperative (Formula I) “Act only on maxims you can will to become universal law.” Step 1: Can everyone do this? (logical possibility) Step 2: Would I want everyone to do this? (consistency) If NO → action is wrong. Golden Rule vs Kant Golden Rule = based on personal preference. Kant = based on universal rational law (stronger, objective). Categorical Imperative (Humanity Formula) Treat people as ENDS, not just MEANS. Means = using someone. End = respecting their value as a person. Morality & People Moral person = values duty and moral law. Immoral person = values desires, outcomes, self-interest. Freedom & Morality You must be free to choose to be moral. Without freedom, there is no responsibility

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