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Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize
Bottom-up Processing
analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Top-down Processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
Absolute Threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Signal Detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue
Subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
Difference Threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli requires for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience this as a just noticeable difference or (jnd)
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Sensory Adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
Hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names, blue, green. etc
Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
Pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and coned plug layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
Accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect detail and give rise to color sensations
Optic Nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the top of the brain
Blind Spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye. No receptor cells are located there
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
Feature Detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to the specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Parallel Processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color
Opponent- Process Theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Audition
the sense or act of hearing
Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)
Pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness, depends on frequency
Middle Ear
the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval windows
Cochlea
a coiled, bony fluid-filled the in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.
Inner Ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
Place Theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
Frequency Theory
in hearing the theory that the rate of nerves impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Conduction Hearing Loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
sensorineural Hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
Cochlear Implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
Kinesthesis
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
Vestibular Sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
Gate-Control Theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that clocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
Sensory Interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surrounding
Grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
Depth Perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
Visual Cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
Binocular Cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
Retinal Disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object
Monocular Cues
depth cues, such as interposition and liner perspective, available to either eye alone.
Phi Phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in a quick succession
Perceptual Constancy
Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change
Color Constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
Perceptual Adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
Perceptual Set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
Bipolar Cells
part of the eye activated when light energy triggers chemical changes to spark neural signals, which then activate ganglion cells
Ganglion Cells
activated by bipolar cells in the eye, these axons twine together to form strands of the optic nerve
Pathway to the visual cortex
ganglion axons forming the optic nerve run to the thalamus, where they synapse with neurons that run to the visual cortex
Color-Blind vision
people may suffer from red-green deficiency or have trouble with perception of a number within a design.
Proximity
grouping nearby figures together
continuity
grouping smooth continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones
closure
filling in gaps to create a complete, whole object
Relative luminance or Relative brightness or Light & Shadow
the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings
connectedness
Gestalt grouping principle; when objects uniform (in color or texture) are linked (no space exists between them) we perceive them as a single unit
similarity
the tendency to perceive things that look alike as being part of the same group
linear perspective
A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
relative height
we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away
relative size
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away
interposition
if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
texture gradient
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed
relative clarity
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects
learning
any relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience
associative learning
when organisms learn that two certain events occur together. two variations of associative learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning
classical conditioning
learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a conditioned response after having become associated with an unconditioned stimulus
behaviorism
The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes; Watson.
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
unconditioned stimulus
the stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers the reflexive unconditioned response
conditioned response
the learned response to previously neutral conditioned stimulus, which results from the acquired association between CS and US
conditioned stimulus
an originally neutral stimulus that comes to trigger a CR after association with an US
acquisition
the initial stage of conditioning in which the new response is established and gradually strengthened.
the strengthening of a reinforced response (operant)