Pysch 8-10

recall

recall

measure of memory where person must retrieve info learned earlier with no retrieval cue (ex. president list, fill in the blank quiz)

recognition

measure of memory where person only needs to identify items previously learned with retrieval cues (ex. snow white dwarfs with list)

relearning

measure of memory that assesses amount of time saved when learning material again (ex. studying for final exam)

encoding

processing info into memory system, get info (ex. extracting meaning)

storage

process of retaining encoded info overtime

retrieval

process of getting info out of memory storage

Info-processing model/Multi store model

made by Atkinson and Shiffrin, believes brain is like a computer, process of encoding, storage, and retrieval

parallel processing

processing many aspects of problem simultaneously

connectionism/levels of processing model

info processing model by Alan Baddely, views memory as products of interconnected neural networks, specific memories arise from particular activation pattern in network, focus on parallel processing, memories based on how important info is

sensory memory

immediate very brief recording of sensory info in memory system (MSM)

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly (MSM) (ex. phone number)

long term memory

relatively permanent and limitless store-house of memory system, includes knowledge, skills, experiences (MSM and LOP)

working memory

newer understanding of short term memory focus on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory/visual spacial info and info retrieved from long term memory (LOP)

central executive

responsible for focused processing/attention (LOP)

effortful processing

encoding requires attention and conscious effort, explicit memories

explicit memories (declarative processing)

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare, follows bottom track through short term memory to long term, in hippocampus (MSM) (ex. “what’s your favorite color”)

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental info directly into storage, top track (MSM) (ex. space, time, frequency, word meanings)

implicit memories (non-declarative memories)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, can be automatic or bottom track, in cerebellum (MSM) (ex. how to drive a car)

procedural memory

automatic skills, implicit memory (ex. how to drive a car)

association

classical conditioning, implicit memory

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, photographic memory lasting no more than few-tenths of a sec, George Spirling, sensory memory

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3/4 secs, sensory memory (ex. ask “what” then respond to question)

George Miller

store about 7 +/-2 bits of info in short term memory

chunking

organize items into familiar, manageable units often automatically (ex. memorizing 43 letters as 7 words)

mnemonics

memory aids using imagery and organizational devices (ex. acronyms, PEMDAS)

peg-word system

mnemonic using jingle (ex. one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, etc)

hierarchies

process info in ordering a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts, used to gain expertise (ex. chapters in textbook divided into subchapters)

spacing effect

tendency for distributed study or practice to build better long term retention than achieved through mass study or practice (ex. studying over long time)

massed practice

cramming, produce speedy short term learning and confidence, forget faster

distributed practice

spread review time to remember better

Hermann Ebbinghaus

spacing effect, retention curve for relearning and memory retention

testing effect (retrievable practice effect/test enhanced learning)

enhanced memory after retrieving rather than rereading info, testing improves learning, Roediger and Jefferly Karpiche

shallow processing

encoding on basic level based on structure or appearance of words (LOP)

structural processing

recognize structure of word (ex. recognizing name) (LOP)

phonemic processing

recognizing the sound of a word (ex. knowing someone's name rhymes with something) (LOP)

semantic processing

recognize a word and know the meaning (ex. knowing name of person) (LOP)

deep processing

encoding semantically based on meaning of words, yields best retention (LOP)

William Brener

minds fill in the image like screen director filling in script (ex. threw rock through window vs threw rock at window)

frontal lobe

working memory processing

hippocampus

“save button” for explicit memory (ex. names, images, events)

memory consolidation

neural storage of long term memory, hippocampus acts as “loading dock”, registers and temporarily holds element of remembered episode (smell, feel, sound, location), memory shifts to storage

cerebellum

forming and storing implicit memories from classical conditioning

basal ganglia

formation of procedural skill memories

infantile amnesia

conscious memory of first three years is blank, index explicit using words children haven’t learned, hippocampus is the last structure to mature

amygdala

stress hormones focus memory, strong emotional events cause strong vivid memory (ex. shooting, rape, etc)

flashbulb memory

clear memory of emotionally significant moment/event

long-term potentiation

increase in cell firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, neural basis for learning and memory, rapid stimulating certain memory circuit connections increased sensitivity for hours/weeks, less prompting to release neurotransmitter

retrieval cue

encode info memory target piece of info, associate with other bits of info, retrieving memory like storage by web of associations, interconnected, more retrieval cues, better chance of finding memory (ex. name of person, sights, smells)

priming

unconscious activation of particular associations in memory (ex. “rabbit” predisposes you to thing “hare”)

encoding specificity principle

cues and contexts specific to particular memory must be effective in helping recall it, memory depends on context (ex. remember an event in a specific location)

state-dependent memory

what is learned in one state (drunk or sober) is recalled when back in that state

mood congruent

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good/bad mood, emotions associate with good/bad events become retrieval cues

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the first + last items in a list (ex. remember first and last couple presidents)

recency effect

recall last items, still in working memory

primacy effect

recall first items, rehearse first items more than last

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories, can remember past

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve info from past

encoding failure

don’t notice and fail to encode don’t make it to long term memory and forget, slower encoding when older, forget easier

storage decay

forget even if encoded well, forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time (ex. people taking high school spanish forget a lot after, but what they remember they remember after

retrieval failure

forget from not being able to retrieve from long term (ex. “on the tip of my tongue")

proactive interference

forward acting disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new info, (ex. using an old combination on a new lock with a different combo)

retroactive interference

backward acting disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old info (ex. sing new lyrics to old song, forget old lyrics)

repression

psychoanalytic theory basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, memories, can be brought back through retrieval cue/therapy, today psychologists believe repression doesn’t happen often (Sigmund Freud)

reconsolidation

process in which previously stored memories when retrieved are potentially altered before stored again

misinformation effect

misleading info corrupts memory of event, feel confident and misremember

source amnesia (source misattribution)

attributing to the wrong source an event that was experienced, heard about, read, imagined (ex. Piaget thought nursemaid thwarted kidnapping from story)

déjà vu

sense of “I’ve experienced this before”, cues from current situation unconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier experience

cognition

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, communicating

concept

mental grouping similar objects, events, ideas, people, simplifying thinking (ex. concept “chair” means high chair, recliner chair, dentist chair, etc)

prototypes

mental image or best example of category, match new items to prototype provide quick easy method for sorting items into categories (ex. a robin is more like a bird than a penguin because it fits better into bird prototype)

algorithm

methodical, logical rule/procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem, always arrives at answer, slower (ex. guess and check)

heuristic

simple thinking strategy that allows the making of judgement and solve problems efficiently, faster but more accident prone (ex. solve word scramble by grouping common letters together)

insight

sudden realization of problems solution, no method, “aha moment”

confirmation bias

tendency to search for info that supports preconceptions and ignore/distort contradictory evidence, rather be right than correct (ex. believing vaccines cause autism)

mental set

tendency to approach problem in one particular way often one successful in the past, predisposing how we think (ex. pushing pull door because you are used to pushing doors open)

fixation

mental set preventing one from taking a fresh perspective (ex. writers block)

intuition

effortless, immediate feeling or thought, contrasted with explicit conscious reasoning

availability heuristic

estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, if instance comes to mind vividly, more likely to presume common (ex. saw on social media, believed it was real) (Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman)

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimate accuracy of beliefs and judgements

belief perseverance

clinging to ones initial conceptions after basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way as issue is posed, can significantly affect decisions and judgments (ex. 10% people die vs 90% people survive)

creativity

ability to produce new and valuable ideas (ex. solution to Fermats last theorem)

aptitude

ability to learn

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution, intelligence tests tests this ability

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions, creative thinking that diverges in different directions, creativity tests tests this

imaginative thinking skills

provide ability to see things in novel ways, recognize patterns, make connections, after mastering problems basic elements, explore in new ways (ex. Copernicus mastered solar system and planets, then discovered planets went around the sun)

Wolfgang Kohler

believed humans aren’t the only creatures to display insight, a chimp stopped, surveyed scene, then figured out a way to solve its issue

language

spoken, written, signed words and ways we combine them to communicate meaning, info moving from one brain to another, comprehend what never saw or what distant ancestors never knew

phonemes

in language, smallest distinctive sound unit (ex. that=th + a + t)

morphemes

in language, smallest unit carrying meaning, may be part of a word (ex. bat, pre-, -ed)

grammar

system of rules that enables communication with understanding others

semantics

set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

syntax

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

receptive language

ability to understand what is said, infants develop language comprehension faster than language production, recognize sounds and words, can lip read

productive language

ability to produce words, recognize noun-verb differences

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, stage of speech development where infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to household language, consonant-vowel pair, 10 months they start to imitate, lose ability to hear/produce sound outside native language if don’t hear (ex. da-da, ma-ma)

one-word stage

age 1-2, stage in speech development child mostly speaks in single words (ex. “doggy” means look at dog

two-word stage

about age 2, stage in speech development child speaks in mostly two-word sentences (ex “want juice”)

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which child speaks like telegram, mostly nouns and verbs, follow syntax, adjectives before words (ex. “go car”)

universal grammar

all languages share basic elements, all have nouns, verbs, adjectives, humans predisposed to learn grammar rules (Noam Chomsky)