Democracy and participation

The 2015 Recall of MPs Act —> example of direct democracy

Allows petition to be triggered if an MP is sentenced to be imprisoned or is suspended from the Commons for more than 21 days

10% eligible voters in constituency to sign then by-election is called

Example of By Election

Feb 15th 2024, recall of Peter Bone after he was suspended from parlimanet for six weeks due to allegations of bullying and sexual harassment

Big swing from Con to Labour, overturning 18k Tory majority

Citizen's Assembly on Climate Change

Tasked with achieving goal of reaching net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050

Consists of 108 members —> assembly produced detailed repors with recommednations —> some which have been reflected in gov policy

Shows how citizen's assemblies are an example of direct democracy in the UK

Rupert Lowe's Vote on Assisted Dying - example of Representative/ Direct Democracy

he hosted mini-referendum in his constituenty

After 75% of 1181 constituents voted in favour of assisted dying, he voted like this

Wakeford and Poulter Defect to Labour —> show benefits of representaitve democracy, as MPs can use their judgments

Wakeford defection in Jan 2020 —> occurred minutes before PMQ when Johnson was facing considerable internal party challenges —> criticised Con Party for poor leadership and moral failings, Partygate

Dan Poulter defection in April 2024 —> mental health doctor as well, citied experience of overstreched NHS and this being due to Con Party's policies —> Con party shifted away from values he stood for

Can also be seen as drawback as MPs now standing for different party to one they were elected to serve

Example of politicians puting their interest and party interests before the people, betraying election promise

2010, Lib Dems didn't follow manifesto promises to scrap tuition fees for student

What were turnouts in GEs between 1945 to 1997 compared to 2024

76% to 59.8%

What was turnout in the 2023 Local Election?

32%

What % of the electorate now belong to political party, compared to 1983

Only 1.6% compared to 3.8%

How many members does Con Party have now vs mid 1990s

100k vs 400k

How many members does Labour Party have now vs mid 1990s

370,000 vs 500k (under Corbyn)

Example of slacktivism in other methods of participation

24th of Nov 2024, petition to call an immediate general election received 2.9 million signatures, despite fact that it is almost impossible for general election to be called just months after the electorate deliveref the gov a 170 seat majority

Also, some X users urged people internationally to sign the petition pretending to be UK voters

What was 2014 Scottish Independence referendum turnout?

84.6%

What was 2016 EU referendum turnout?

72.2%

2010 expenses scandal

Daily Telegraph Newspaper publsihed information about expense claims made by MPs —> should only e used to cover costs during parliamentary duties but were used for leisure aw

+ Partygate

Reason why GE turnout might have decreased —> distrust

Why might there have been such low voter turnout in 2001 and 2005 elections

Idea of "hapathy" because of Uk economy booming

Labour Party membership surge 2015

Milliband reduced fee to £3 —> 500k members

Following indyref1, what was SNPs membership

Over 125k in April 2018

Feb 2025, Reform UK membership

200k double that of Con party, and not far of Labour

how many signatures did the Revoke Article 50 petition have in march 2019

5.5 million

Example of E-Petitions generating signficant involvment in politics between elections

Age UK E-Petition to reverse Reeve's announcment to cut Winter Fuel Payments

Recieved 590k signatures

last parliament, 202 petitions debated in commons using E-petition system created by Coalition Gov

Example of outsider social movement having impact on policies of the UK gov and opposition

Protests for a ceasefire in gaza first hald of 2024 in London

Labour moving in feb 2024 to supporting an "immediate humanitarian ceasefire" and Cameron calling for de-escalation

Muslim Vote as example of pressure group enhancing participation

Social Movement aims to mobilise Muslim voters through social media to shape political outcomes

Focus on high Muslim pop constituencies to inform voters to elect pro-Gaza candidtaes

Social media accumulated 20 million monthly viewers

2024 GE, all 5 pro-Ceasefire independents who were elected endorsed by Muslim Vote

When are UK general elections held

On Thursday as set out by Fixed term parliament Act 2011

In the YouGov polling in 2024, what % of respondents say that they "almost never" trust the British governmen to place the needs of the nation above interest of their own party ?

49% up from 26% in 2019

What % of people think that politicians in Westminster ignore issues they cre about

67% up from 50% in 2019

"Freebiegate" Scandal 2024 —> cronyism + example of democratic deficit

Donor Lord Waheed Alli, Labour peer and media entrepreneur donated over £500k to party since 2020

Further scrutiny revealed that Starmer had accepted more than £107k in gifts and hospitality since 2019

Following Labour victory, Alli granted temporary security pass to Downing Street —> used to organise post-election event and advise on public appointments, called "operation Integrity"

Michelle Mone and The Medpro PPE Scandal

Mone is a Conservative peer

PPE Medpro, company linked to Mone's husband was fast tracted though government "VIP lane" and awarded contracts worth over £200 million for supplying PPE(personal protective equipment) to the NHS

The equipment was late found to be unusable, company only established 44 days before

£65 million from these profits were sent to offshore accounts some of which beneffited Mone directly.

According to the guardian how much were MPs paid from second jobs and freelance work in 2022/23

£10 million

Johnson made £4.8 million from speaking opportunities and consulting others

Concern as they should be spending time focusing on representing public effectively

Example of PMs who didn't face GE

Liz Truss

Rishi Sunak

how many By-elections since 2019 Elections due to MPs being forced to resign for breaking law etc?

23

Elections Act 2022

removed 15 year limit on the voting rights of british citizens living abroad.

how many voters turned away from voting in 2024 due to voter ID laws implemented by Elections Act 2022

50,000

Accoriding to Electoral Commission what % of those who didn't turnout in 2024 said voter ID was the reason for this

10%

According to Electoral Commission how many voters lack accepted ID

750k

1832 Great Reform Act

Rotten boroughs abolished and gave vote to middle class men. 8% of population

1867 Second Reform Act

gave many working men the vote. (2.5 million) (1/3 of men)

1872 ballot Act

Introduced secret ballot

1884 Third Reform Act

Gave most working men the vote. 18% of population (2/3 of men)

1919 Representation of People Act

Granted all men and woemn over 30 the vote. 75% of population

1928

Women's voting age reduced to 21

1969

Everyone 18 and over could vote

The Suffragists 1897

National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies under Millicent Fawcett —> non-violent

The Suffragettes

Set up in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst, former suffragist —> used more militant tactics

For example, 1913, suffragette Emily Davison thre herself under the king's horse at the Epsom Derby

Votes at 16 Coalition

Formed in 2003 —> Labour, Lib Dems, SNP and Electoral Reform Society now all suport votes at 16

2014 —> 16 and 17 year olds allowed to vote in 2014 Scottish Independence Referendum and then later allowed to vote in Scottish Parliament elections

Labour supports it in their 2024 Election manifesto but has yet to introduce it —> storng opposition from Con and Reform

What has Farage accused Labour of because of wanting to allow 16 year olds to vote

"Rig future elections"

Example of E petitions being successful

2011, petition calling for release of all documents relating to Hillsborough diaster of 1989, resulted in a debate in parliament and release of the papers and lunch of new inquest

2023, e-petition titled "Increase statutory maternity pay in line with cost of living crisis" —> 38 k signatiures —> debated by Petition Committee on June 19, 2023

Government annoucned an enhancement to materintiy ay by £20 a week, 10.1% increase, implemented in the Social Security Benefits Up-rating Order of April 2023, statutory instrument

Hirst v UK (2005)

European Court of Human Rights ruled that prisoner disenfranchisement was a violation of human rights. Did not lead to long term meaningful change.

Example of Causual/ Promotional Pressure Groups

Greenpeace

Charities like Oxfam

Example of Sectional/Interest groups

The Law Society

Trade Unions in general

key examples of social movements

Anti-Iraq War protests 2003 which included 750k demonstrators

Friday for Future Climate Marches—> started by greta Thunberh

Black Lives matter in 2020

Peoples vote Movement in relation to Brexit

Example of Insider Groups

National Union of Farmers with DEFRA under any Conservative party Gov

Example of Outsider groups

"Just Stop Oil"

Protests by farmers and the National Farmers Union in 2024 and 2025 over Rachel Reeves scrapping Agricultural Property Relief

Example of pressure groups switching between insider and outsider status

NFU under last Con government able to wield significant policy influence —> close ties with DEFRA and Tory party

Sunak attended their annual conference and pledged to protect British Farming in the agricultural market leading to UK suspending trade talks with canda after they refused to loosen food standard —> beenfited 55k farmers the union represents

Under Labour, Reeves and the 20% tax on inhereted farmers

Example of insider groups giving their views to government

The national Farmers Union able to give Con gov specialised knowledge in return for influence over policy

Laywes acting for the human rights group "liberty" have lobbied MPS to put their views across on counterterrosim polcies

Example of Outsider methods - protests

Just Stop Oil with stages protests through 2022 and 2023, including blocking roads and glueing themselves to football posts

Well funded pressur egroups may initiate legal challenge —> Countryside Alliance took its case against banning of fox hunting to the High Court in 2004

Public Order Act 2023

In response to UK's governments concerns over highly disruptive protest tactics employed by groups like Extinction Rebellion and Jus Stop Oil

Introduced new offences such as "locking-on" (attaching oneself to objects) and interfering with national infrastructure, punishable by imprisonment or unlimited fines

Example of Police intervening in Protests

Oct 30th 2023, Met Police swiftly intervened in a Just Stop Oil "slow march" around Parliament Square, arresting over 60 activists within minutes under the new legislation

In march 2025, Public Order Act used to prevent farmers protesting against inheritance tax changes from bringing tractors to their protests in Westminster and blocking the roads

Labour Scrapping of Anti-Stirke legislation

Scrapped Minimum Service Levels Bill 2023 and Trade Union Act 2016

Enhanced outsider pressure groups methods

Example of pressure groups using both insider and outsider methods

19th November 2024, National Farmers Union organised protest with over 13k farmers outside Westminster,

Additionally, organised "mass lobby" event where thousands of farmers met 150MP in London

Government refused to backtrack

Stonewall - insider Pressure Groups

Charity and pressur egroup in UK that campaigns for LGBT rights

Outsider group in 1989 in opposition to Section 28 of 1988 Local Government Act introduced by Thatcher

When New Labour cam it become insider —> used legal challenges in European Court of Human Rights to challenge existing legislation

Key challenges made by Stonewall

Challenged banning of homosexuality in the armed forced —> lifted by gov in 2000 after successful case in European Court of Human Rights

Involved in equalising age of consent to 16 as part of Sexual Offences Act 2000

Introduction of Civil Parternship Act 2004

April 2022, boycotted Con gov's first global LGBT conference over decision to exclude trans people from a ban on conversion therapy.

Care4Calais - successful use of legal challenges

Charity aid to refugees in Calais —> outsider

Legal challenges against Rwanda case saying it violates Human Rights Act due to factors such as discriminatory access to asylum for different groups in Rwanda

14 june 2022, first planned deportation flight to Rwanda was emptied

Liberty and key challenges

Campaigns to protect civil liberties and protect human rights in the UK

Aims to engender "rights culture" within British society

Failed to prevent POlice, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act from being passed 2021, which limitedthe right to protest in UK —> roganised key protests under slogal "KillTheBill" but unable to

Unable to prevent passage of Public Order Act 2023 —> tried to lobby Parliament and tried to raise awarness through demonstrations and protests

Failed to convince labour to repeal the law and in March 2025 Public Order Act was used again against farmers

Example of policy U-turn due to celebrity advocate and public support

Marcus Rashford's Campaign for Free School Meals —> figurehead of many outsider pressure groups 2020

Gov extended decision to not extend free school meals

Success of Trade Union using Industrial Action

RMT Strikes from the Winter of 2022/23

Major strikes by National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers

outsider, sectional pressure group

After year and half on strikes, accepted pay deal of 9% over 2 years with Network Rail

Example of Failure of Outsider Pressure Group

Just Stop Oil

July 2023 —> Sunak granted 100 new North Sea oil and gas licences, arguing it was right thing to do as it would create jobs

Allowed Rosebank, largest untapped oil field in UK to be developed

Shows how pressure groups are dependent on gov support

Example of Pressure Groups failing because government has other objectives

WASPI( Women against State Pension Inequality) —> campagned for compensation of 3.6 million women affected by change to women's state pension age that begain in 2010 ( same as men)

Labour Gov Dec 2024, said it wouldnt do it as it would cost over £10bn and Labour Gov aims to reduce deficit and invest in public sectors

Example showing how capable leadership is essential o the success of pressure groups

• the RSPCA played a key role in securing a ban on hunting with dogs in 2004 by collaborating with two similar groups -The League Against Cruel Sports and the International Fund for Animal Welfare - to stop them competing.

Example of public support being influencial in pressure groups success

Marcus Rashford's free school meals

Snowdrop campaign to ban use of hangunds, due to public horror over 1996 Dunblane Primary School massacre

Example of Gov working with pressure groups on common goals

National Farmers Union links to DEFRA were instrumental in bringing about 2013 badger cull.

Examples of right wing think tanks

Adam Smith Institute

Example of Left Wing think tank

Fabian Society and Institute for Public Policy

How many times was Institute for Fiscal Studies cited in government policy documents between 2015 and 2021

150 times

Example of think tanks being filled with young, inexperienced workers who want to build political career

David Milliband worked for Institute for Public Policy Research at start of career.

Examples of Right Wing Think Tanks influence

Universal Credit benefits system first proposed by Centre for Social Justice and implemented by Coalition government.

Con Party shift to free market approach owed great deal to Tatcher's patronage of right wing think tanks like Adam Smith Institute

Liz Truss disasterous economic policies for deregulation and tax breaks for rich in 2022, influenced by newliberal institue of Economic Affairs —> Truss' senior special advisor Ruth Porter was a former worker there

Examples of Left Wing Think Tanks influence

2024 Tony Blair Institute for Global Change consulted and considerable influence on labour Party Policy under Starmer

Centrist and progresisve ideologies from this think tank —> evident in Labour Party shift under Starmer Centrist—> "pro-business) and tough on crime

Labour Together

Insider policy Think-tank formed under Corbyn's leadership, desiged to get labour re-elected and guide the party

Rachel Reeves, Wes Streeting ect all involved in forming Labour Together, now hold front posts

Large supply of capital resources —> raised over £4 million since 2020 —> major donors —> used this to provide special advisors to front-bench MPs like Reeves, allowing them to influence policy formulation directly

Example of concerns over think tanks being filled funding

The Tony Blair Institute criticised for accepting money from foreign governments

Right winf think tanks like IEA criticised for accepting large money from right wing American backers

New Parliamnetary Standards Rules on Lobbying 2023

Outright ban on MPs providing paid parliamentary advice, or strategy services related to lobbying

MPs required to have written contract for any outside work explicitly stating their duties do not include lobying activites

Oct 2024, Labour Gov tightened rules on what MPs can do as second job

How much is spend by lobbyists each year in UK

£2 bn —> over 100 firms employing 4000 people

US is $3.5 trillion

Since 2017 how many former UK ministers and senior officials have taken up jobs that relate to policy areas they previously managed

170

Example of ex-ministers taking lobbying positions

Javid, former chancellor and health secretary, taking £300,000 a year role as adviser to Jersey based investment firm Centricus Partners

Example of "revolving door" 2024

New Treasury minister with responsibility for China-UK relationship on financial services refused to recuse herself from policy on China, having previously worked for a Lobbying firm on issue

Emma Reynold, MP for Wycombe used to work for TheCityUK, lobbying firm for banks

Scott benton Lobbying Scandal

Con MP for Blackpool South, filmed offering to lobby on behalf of fake gambling company by the Times 2023

He said he would lead confidential policy papers for company in exchaneg for £4k a month

Example of Policy shelved because of lobbying

2024 UK parliaent passed Tobaco and Vapes Act, prohibits anyone born after 2009 from purchasing cirgarettes —> passed with 383 MPs, despite intense lobbying

However, when Sunak announced early general election in 2024, Smoking Ban was dropped due to "time constrains"

Cash For questions

1990s under John Major, MPs accused for accepting money to ask particular questions in parliament

Neil Hamilton MP accepted £2k through lobbyist for askign questions on behalf of owner of Harrods

Bernie Ecclestone scandal

Tony Blair exempting F1 ban on tobacco advertising after Bernie Ecclestone ( hed of F1 governing body ) had donated £1million to Labour

Cameron and Greensill Capital

After leaving gov he was paid over $1 million per year by company

Example of government bailing out corporations in financial toruble

£7.5 billion in loans during covid given out by BoE to help corporations and companies struggling as a result of lockdown in Covid Coporate Financing Facility

Example of Corporation Influence

2024 - telecommunications industry's impact on broadband infrastrucutre plans

Gov initially committed to achiveing nationwide gigabit broadband coverage by 2025, but this was later adjusted to 85% coverage by 2025, and full coverage by 2030 due to challenges

Significant support form telecom companies who have been able to influence gov discussions and policies

Labour Investment Summit

Consisted of over 300 industry leaders and resulted in £63 bn of private investment

• This highlights the influence of corporations on Governments, in securing favourable low-regulatory policy. Corporations often have significant power due to their importance to the UK economy and jobs, a key parameter Governments are judged by.

Electric Vehicles company lobbying on UK Government

2024, gov confirmed it would reverse the Electric Vehocle mandate which currently requires carmakers to sell a set percentage of EVs each year

However, Elon Musk's Tesla lobbied the newly-elected gov in summer

1998 Human Rights Act

brought ECHR into UK law and guaranteed rights which were historically unwritten

Rights could be defended in UK rather than having to go to Strasbourg

How are rights protected in the UK

• Parliamentary legislation such as the Equality Act and Human Rights Act.

• Pressure groups.

• The House of Lords, parties and other groups in parliament.

• Common Law, such as the presumption of innocence.

Magna Carta (1215)

Limit royal power and foundation of rights of citizens and established the right to trial by jury

The Bill of Rights (1689)

A bill passed by Parliament and accepted by William and Mary that limited the powers of British monarchs and affirmed those of Parliament.

European Convention on Human Rights (1950)

Document used to enforce human rights and freedom of expression in Europe

Court set in Strasbourg

Example of Act being declared incompativle with Humar Rights Act

in A v Secretary of State for Home Department

The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was declared incompatible with Article 5 and 14 of HRA

Amended by parliament as result

Example of HRA, being used to enhance UK rights

Article 2 of ECHR (Right of life) was used to obtain new inquest into the Hillborough disaster