PSYCH 327- Adolescent Development

puberty

• period when an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction

• including all the physical changes that occur in adolsscents

chief manifestations of puberty

• Rapid acceleration in growth, resulting in dramatic increases in height and weight. (growth spurt)

• Development of primary sex characteristics, including the further development of the gonads (sex glands).

• Development of secondary sex characteristics, including changes in the genitals and breasts, and the growth of pubic, facial, and body hair.

• Changes in the brain’s anatomy and activity as a result of hormonal influences.

endocrine system

system of the body produces, circulates , and regulates hormone levels in the body

• hormones, glands, hpg axis (set point)

hormones

• highly specialized substances secreted by one or more endocrine glands

glands

• organs that stimulate particular parts of the body to response in specific ways to particular hormones

set point

• a physiological level or setting (ex. Of a specific hormone) that the body attempts to maintain through a self-regulating system

• _____increases at certain age to trigger HPG axis

what triggers puberty

• presence of mature sexual partners

• sufficient nutritional resources

• physically mature and healthy enough to begin reproducing

• presence of hormones and brain chemicals

• more fat cells and exposure to light

• genetics

kisspeptin

a brain chemical believed to trigger the onset of puberty.

leptin

A protein produced by the fat cells that may play a role in the onset of puberty through its impact on kisspeptin. (stimulate kisspeptin)

melatonin

A hormone secreted by the brain that contributes to sleepiness and that triggers the onset of puberty through its impact on kisspeptin. (suppress kisspeptin)

• high traces of melatonin decreases kisspeptin (negative correlation

adolscent growth spurt

the dramatic increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty

peak height velocity

The point at when the adolescent is growing most rapidly.

epiphysis

the closing of the ends of the bones which terminates growth after the adolscent growth supurt has been completed

Secondary sexual characteristics

The manifestations of sexual maturity at puberty, including the development of breasts, the growth of facial and body hair, and changes in the voice.

Tanner Stages

A widely used system that describes the five stages of pubertal development. Aka. Sexual maturity rating

• 5 stages for both girls and boys but for differnt areas

  • boys (penis and scrotum, and pubic hair)

  • girls (breasts and pubic hair)

Weathering

The process through which exposure to stress may accelerate aging

Psychosocial Acceleration Theory (Belsky- Steinberg-Draper Hypothesis)

proposes that early childhood experiences, particularly those involving harsh, unpredictable, or high-stress environments, trigger a “fast life history strategy”.

• People experience stress→ feel life is threatens kickstarts onset of puberty to potentially start having offspring (survival instinct)

Pheromones

A class of chemicals secreted by animals that stimulate certain behaviors in other members of the species.

Secular trend

The tendency, over the past two centuries, for individuals to be larger in stature and to reach puberty earlier, primarily because of improvements in health and nutrition

Cross-sectional study

A study that compares two or more groups of individuals at one point in time.

Longitudinal study

A study that follows the same group of individuals over time.

pros of cross sectional studies

• quick and cost- effective

• no participation attrition

• large, diverse samples

cons of cross sectional studies

• cohort effects may bias results

• only a snapshot

• no data on change over time

pros of longitudinal studies

• shows individual change and development

• stronger causal inference

• rich data over time

consof longitudinal studies

• time cosnuming and expensive

• risk of attrition

• practice/testing effects

Delayed phase preference

A pattern of sleep characterized by later sleep and wake times, which usually emerges during puberty.

• Caused by interaction of biology and environment

pros of early maturation (boys)

• popularity

• better self-esteem

cons of early maturation (boys)

• More drug and alcohol use, delinquency, and precocious sexual activity.

• Greater impact of victimization/being bullied.

• Possibly elevated rates of depression and anxiety.

• More intense temper tantrums and depression during puberty

cons of early maturation (girls)

• Poorer self-image

• Higher rates of depression, eating disorders, and panic attacks

• More often victims of rumors, gossip, and sexual harassment.

Disordered eating

Mild, moderate, or severe disturbance in eating habits and attitudes.

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder found chiefly among young women, characterized by dramatic and severe self-induced weight loss. (stirct food intake)

Bulimia

An eating disorder found primarily among young women, characterized by a pattern of binge eating and extreme weight loss measures, including self-induced vomiting. (result in both underweight or overweight)

Binge eating disorder

An eating disorder characterized by a pattern of binge eating that is not accompanied by drastic attempts to lose weight.

adolscents are more sophisticated in their ability to think about…

• possibilities

• abstract concept

• thinking (metacognition)

• multiple dimensions

• seeing things as relative, not absolute

interpersonal relationships

connections and interactions you have with other people, can be short-term or long-term

• family, friendships, romantic, work, etc.

example of abstract concepts

friendship, faith, democracy, fairness, and honesty

metacognition

• The process of thinking about thinking itself

• Involves monitoring one’s own cognitive activity during thinking.

• Being able to assess how well one is learning new material

adolscent egocentrism

Extreme self-absorption, often a consequence of too much metacognition.

imaginary audience

The belief, often brought on by the heightened self-consciousness of early adolescence, that everyone is watching and evaluating one’s behavior.

• as a result of adult egocentrism

personal fable

Adolescents’ belief that they are unique and therefore not subject to the rules that govern other people’s behavior

• as a result of adolscent egocentrism

Piaget’s theory of adolscent thinking

• children dont jump from stage to stage in how they reason, instead evolves gradually and continously

• observaational

working emmory

That aspect of memory in which information is held for a short time while a problem is being solved.

Long-term memory

The ability to recall something from long ago.

Autobiographical memory

The recall of personally meaningful events.

Reminiscence bump

The fact that experiences from adolescence are generally recalled more than experiences from other stages of life

fluid intelligence

similar to processing speed. Related to solving novel problems quickly without past knowledg éexperince

Crystallized Inteligence

accumulated knowledge. Related to education, culture, and experience

neurons

nerve cells, has 3 parts

• cell body

• axon

• dendrites

synapse

The gap in space between neurons, across which neurotransmitters carry electrical impulses.

Neurotransmitters:

Specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons. e.g., dopamine, serotonin

Synaptic pruning

The process through which unnecessary connections between neurons are eliminated, improving the efficiency of information processing

• use it or lose it

• makes brain more efficient

• makes grey matter smaller

what happens if there is insufficent synaptic pruning

sensory overload

what happens if there is excessive synaptic pruning

disorganized thinking, cut too many connections

white matter

provides support and protection for neurons and includes a fatty substance called myelin that surrounds the axons of certain neurons.

• increases throughout chilfhood and adolescence at different rates and regions

myelination

The process through which the brain circuits are insulated with myelin, which improves the efficiency of information processing

plasticity

The capacity of the brain to change in response to experience.

• able to lean new skills and language more easily

• Use it and improve it

Developmental plasticity

Extensive remodeling of the brain’s circuitry in response to experiences during childhood and adolescence, while the brain is still maturing.

Adult plasticity

Relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured.

Prefrontal cortex

The region of the brain is most important for sophisticated thinking abilities, such as planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks and rewards, and controlling impulses.

Limbic system

An area of the brain that plays an important role in the processing of emotional experience, social information, and reward and punishment.

Response inhibition

The suppression of behavior that is inappropriate or no longer required.

Executive function

More advanced thinking abilities, enabled chiefly by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, especially in early adolescence.

• Inhibitive conntrol

Functional connectivity

The extent to which multiple brain regions function at the same time, which improves during adolescence.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter especially important in the brain circuits that regulate the experience of reward.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that is especially important for the experience of different moods.

Sensation seeking

The pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting.

• Adolescents more likely to engage than other age groups

Behavioral decision theory

An approach to understanding adolescent risk taking, in which behaviors are seen as the outcome of systematic decision-making processes.

steps of behavioural decision theory

1. Identifying alternative choices.

2. Identifying possible consequences of each choice.

3. Evaluating costs and benefits of each possible consequence.

4. Assessing the likelihood of each possible consequence.

5. Combining all this information to be able to make a decision.

reducing adolscent risk taking

• classroom-based eduction programs

• setting more limits

positive risk taking

• Adolescents’ sensitivity to reward is not always maladaptive

• Somerisk-taking is not impulsive but planned

example of positive risks

• Trying a new skill or hobby.

• Joining extracurricular activities or leadership roles.

• Volunteering or community projects.

• Traveling to new places.

• Speaking up for oneself or others

Social cognition

The aspect of cognition that concerns thinking about other people, interpersonal relationships, and social institutions.

• help account for many advances typically associated with adolescence—in the realms of identity, autonomy, achievement, intimacy, and sexuality.

Theory of Mind

the ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions and knowledge that may be different form one’s own

• Leads to improvements in communication

• May also lead to rebellion or lying

Menatlizing

ability to understand soeone else’s mental state

Changes in adolscents understanding about relationships lead to differences in the following

• How adolescents perceive peer exclusion

• Their beliefs about authorit

• Their willingness to question their parents ruler

• Their view of teachers authority

Social conventions

The norms that govern everyday behavior in social situations.

Social Redefinition

The process through which an individual’s position or status is redefined by

society

waht do socieies agree about adolsence

• its a period of social transition

• individual becomes recognized as an afult

• we use social indicators to distinguish between adolsence and adulthood

Age of Majority

The designated age at which an individual is recognized as an adult.

Statutory rape

Sex between two individuals, even when it is consensual, when at least one of the persons is below the legal age of consent; in the United States, the specific age of consent varies from state to state

what are the best markers to use for the beginning and end of adolsence

Menarche and marriage are probably the best markers to use for the beginning and end of adolescence

Inventionists

Theorists who argue that the period of adolescence is mainly a social invention.

• Adolescence is defined primarily by the ways in which society does or does not recognize the period as distinct from childhood or adulthood.

Larson and Wilson

• having an effect, chnages driven by powerful elites and mulitinational business organizations

• macrostructural changes take place

• cultural and contextual variation leads to distinct challenges and opportunities for adolscents

• poorer nations continue to have high birth rates

common practices in Processes of Social Redefinition

• real or symbolic seperation from parents

• an emphasis on differences between sexes

• passing on info from older generation

• body rituals

Bar (Bas) Mitzvah

In Judaism, the religious ceremony marking the young person’s transition to adulthood.

Scarification

The intentional creation of scars on some part or parts of the body, often done as part of an initiation ceremony (rite of passage)

feautures of emerging adulthood

• The exploration of possible identities before making enduring choices.

• Instability in work, romantic relationships, and living arrangements.

• A focus on oneself and on functioning as an independent person.

• The feeling of being caught between adolescence and adulthood

Initiation ceremony

The formal induction of a young person into adulthood.

• Adult status allows people able to participate in certain activities: gambling, buying alcohol, and seeing X-rated films.

Status offense

A violation of the law that pertains to minors but not adults (An adult can leave school or home without official penalties.)

Juvenile justice system

A separate system of courts and related institutions developed to handle juvenile crime and delinquency

Criminal justice system

The system of courts and related institutions developed to handle adult crime.

what are the societal trends reshaping transition into adulthood

• The increasing length of the transitional period (earlier average puberty, later average marriage).

• Increasing demand for more formal education.

how does poverty affect school achievement

• make stransition into adulthood more difficult

• impair development of self control leads to higher chances of hvaing behvaioural problems

helicopter parenting

Developmentally inappropriate over-involvement

• Always monitor children outside the home

• Anxious about childs behaviour

• Linked to many psychological and social issues in the future

Adolescents growing up in low-income, urban communities are more likely to do the following:

• Be sexually active at an earlier age.

• Bear children as teenagers.

• Become involved in criminal activities. Achieve less in (or drop out of) high school

Collective efficacy

A community’s social capital, derived from its members’ common values and goals.

family systems theory

relationships in families change most dramatically when individual members or family circumstances are changing.

A perspective on family functioning that emphasizes interconnections among different family relationships (such as marital, parent-child, sibling).

The Family Life Cycle Theory

Six stages which are identified as points of transition.

• These points of transitions or stages are:

• The unattached young adult

• Thenewly married system

• The family with young children

• The family with adolescent

• The launching and empty nest

• Show excessive control and more expectations

• The family in later life

typical arguments between adolscents and parents

• Conflicts focus on mundane issues (curfews, leisure activities, clothing, cleanliness of their rooms)

• They stem from different perspectives on issues and violations of expectations

• adolescents rarely rebel against their parents for the sake of rebelling

• Struggles are generally over who has authority

what psychological crises over identity are parents having:

• experiencing increased concern about their bodies, attractiveness, and sexual appeal even as adolescents are maturing and approaching a period of life labeled one of the most attractive.

• beginning to feel that the possibilities for change are limited, while their children are looking toward the future.

• The occupational plateau is the point at which adults can tell how successful they are likely to be.