Generalities in Clinical Chemistry and Diabetes Mellitus

These flashcards cover key terms and concepts related to carbohydrates, diabetes mellitus, and clinical chemistry, providing definitions to aid in exam preparation.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, providing energy and structural components.

Glycemic control

Monitoring and maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels to prevent diabetes complications.

Glucose

The principal sugar circulating in the bloodstream; primary energy source for cells.

Insulin

A hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreas that regulates glucose levels by promoting its uptake.

Amylin

A peptide hormone secreted by beta cells, works alongside insulin to control glucose levels.

Diabetes Mellitus

A group of diseases characterized by high blood glucose levels resulting from defects in insulin secretion, action, or both.

Type 1 Diabetes

An autoimmune condition leading to beta-cell destruction in the pancreas, resulting in absolute insulin deficiency.

Type 2 Diabetes

A chronic condition characterized by insulin resistance and eventually leading to beta-cell dysfunction.

HbA1c

Glycated hemoglobin; a form of hemoglobin that is measured to identify average blood glucose levels over a period of time.

Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing energy; can decrease glucose levels in unseparated blood.

C-peptide

A byproduct of proinsulin cleavage, used to assess endogenous insulin production.

D-glucose

A vital monosaccharide for energy production in the body.

Glycosylation

A biochemical modification where carbohydrates are attached to proteins, affecting their function.

Hyperglycemia

Excessively high blood glucose levels, commonly associated with diabetes.

Hypoglycemia

Abnormally low blood glucose levels, which can cause symptoms like altered mental status and seizures.

Glucagon

A hormone produced by alpha cells in the pancreas; raises blood glucose levels by promoting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

Somatostatin

A hormone produced by delta cells in the pancreas that inhibits the release of other hormones, including insulin and glucagon.

Ghrelin

A hormone produced primarily in the stomach; promotes appetite and food intake.

Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP)

A hormone produced by F cells in the pancreas, involved in regulating pancreatic secretions.

Incretins

Hormones released by the intestines that stimulate insulin secretion after meals.

Amylin function

Slows gastric emptying and inhibits glucagon secretion, working synergistically with insulin.

Insulin secretion

The release of insulin from beta cells in response to rising blood glucose levels.

Diabetic nephropathy

Kidney disease resulting from diabetes, characterized by damage to the kidney's filtering system.

Diabetic neuropathy

Nerve damage that can occur with diabetes, leading to pain, tingling, and numbness.

Lifestyle modification

Changes in diet and physical activity recommended for managing diabetes and obesity.

Fasting plasma glucose (FPG)

An important diagnostic measure for diabetes; must be ≥ 126 mg/dL on two occasions for diagnosis.

Insulin resistance

A condition where cells fail to respond effectively to insulin, requiring higher amounts for glucose control.

Autoantibodies

Antibodies that mistakenly target and react with a person's own tissues or cells, significant in Type 1 diabetes diagnosis.

Islets of Langerhans

Clusters of cells in the pancreas that produce hormones, including insulin and glucagon.

Sodium fluoride (NaF)

A compound that inhibits glycolysis, thus stabilizing glucose measurements in laboratory tests.

Traces of HDL

High-density lipoprotein; often referred to as 'good cholesterol,' involved in reverse cholesterol transport.

Apolipoprotein B (ApoB)

A primary protein component of lipoproteins such as LDL that regulates cholesterol transport.

Triglycerides

The main form of fat storage in the body, consisting of three fatty acid molecules attached to glycerol.

Ketogenesis

The production of ketone bodies from fatty acids, often increased in diabetes and fasting.

Anabolic hormone

Hormones that promote anabolism, such as insulin, which encourages the uptake of glucose.

Microvascular complications

Small blood vessel damage resulting from chronic high glucose levels, leading to issues like retinopathy and neuropathy.

Macrovascular complications

Large blood vessel damage associated with diabetes, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Pleural fluid

Fluid found in the pleural cavity; can be analyzed for glucose levels in diabetic patients.

Left shift

A laboratory finding indicating the presence of immature neutrophils, often associated with infection.

Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

A test used to diagnose diabetes by measuring the body's response to glucose.

Uremia

A medical condition associated with kidney failure, marked by increased levels of urea and creatinine in blood.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)

A serious complication of diabetes characterized by high blood sugar, ketones, and acidosis.

Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Coma (HHNC)

A diabetes complication featuring extremely high blood glucose without significant ketone production.

Phospholipids

A class of lipids forming cell membranes, consisting of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group.

Non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA)

Fatty acids not attached to glycerol; important source of energy.

Chylomicrons

Lipoproteins that transport dietary lipids from the intestines to other locations in the body.

Very Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL)

A type of lipoprotein that transports triglycerides from the liver to tissues.

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL)

Often referred to as 'bad cholesterol,' can lead to atherosclerosis if elevated.

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL)

Known as 'good cholesterol,' it helps transport cholesterol to the liver for excretion.

Atherogenic

Capable of promoting the formation of fatty deposits in arteries, leading to cardiovascular disease.

Frequent transfusions

Blood transfusions that can significantly alter HbA1c accuracy due to high RBC turnover.

Accidental hypoglycemia

Unintended low blood glucose levels often due to insulin or other diabetes medications.

Insulinoma

A tumor of the pancreas that produces excessive insulin, causing recurrent hypoglycemia.

Carbamylated hemoglobin

A hemoglobin modification that can falsely increase HbA1c readings, seen in several conditions.

Impaired Fasting Glucose (IFG)

A prediabetic state defined by fasting glucose levels that are higher than normal but not high enough for a diabetes diagnosis.

Endocrine pancreas

The part of the pancreas that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin and glucagon.

Exocrine pancreas

The part of the pancreas that produces digestive enzymes and secretes them into the gastrointestinal tract.

Fasting Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia that occurs after prolonged fasting, commonly with various metabolic conditions.

Reactive Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia that occurs shortly after eating as a result of the body's overreaction to an increase in blood sugar.

Vascular complications

Disease consequences stemming from diabetes, impacting blood vessels and circulation.

Obesity/metabolic syndrome

A group of risk factors, including high blood pressure and obesity, that increase the risk of diabetes and heart disease.

Insulin release

The process by which beta cells secrete insulin in response to rising glucose levels.

Endocrine function

The role of organs in secreting hormones that regulate bodily functions.

Exocrine function

The role of organs in producing substances that are released outside the body or into the digestive tract.

Biosynthetic Clinical Pathology

Study of the chemical substances found in living organisms for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

Educational health practices

Guidelines and strategies aimed at improving health education and outcomes for individuals.

Glucose management techniques

Methods employed to monitor and control blood sugar levels in diabetic patients.

Hepatic glucose output

The release of glucose from the liver into the bloodstream, critically regulated by insulin and glucagon.

Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins

Lipoproteins, like VLDL, primarily composed of triglycerides, contributing to energy storage.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL)

An enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides in lipoproteins, allowing free fatty acids to enter cells.

Subclinical disease

A disease or condition that does not exhibit outward symptoms but can still be diagnosed.

Endocrine signaling

Hormonal communication between cells and organs in the body's system.

Clinical diagnosis

The process of identifying a disease or condition based on clinical signs and symptoms.

Body fluid analysis

Evaluation of various bodily fluids to diagnose and monitor health conditions.

Nutritional assessment

Systematic evaluation of dietary intake and nutritional status.

Immunohistochemical staining

A laboratory method used to visualize specific proteins in tissue sections.

Risk factor modification

Altering lifestyle or medical treatment to reduce the risk of developing disease.

Grams of carbohydrates

A measurement used to gauge food intake in managing diabetes.

Insulin secretion ratios

Comparative measures to evaluate the effectiveness of insulin production.

Therapeutic education

Education aimed at improving health outcomes through better understanding and management of health.

Diagnostic criteria

Guidelines used to determine whether an individual has a specific health condition.

Segmentation of plasma

The process of separating components in blood based on physical properties like density.

Electrophoretic separation

A laboratory method used to separate molecules based on their size and charge.

Micelle structure

Spherical structures formed by lipids that facilitate lipid transport in the body.