psych midterm

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210 Terms

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Learning
A process by which behavior or knowledge changes as a result of experience
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Classical Conditioning
When a neutral stimulus gains the ability to elicit a response from an organism because it was associated with some other stimulus that reliability and automatically elicited that response in the past
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Conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
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Conditioned responses
Elicited by the conditioned stimulus
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Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that results in unlearned reflexive response
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Unconditioned response
Reflexive unlearned response to the unconditioned stimulus
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Neutral stimulus
A stimulus that with conditioning will elicit a response, but w/o conditioning, won't.
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Stimulus
External event or cue that elicits a perceptual response
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Acquisition
The initial phase of learning where a response is established
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Extinction
losing/weakening of the CR as the CS and US are no longer paired.
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CR becomes unnecessary if the CS is a no longer reliable predictor.
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Previous CR can still return even after the extinction.
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Spontaneous recovery
A recurrence of previously extinguished CR
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Stimulus generalization
A process in which a response that originally occurred for a specific stimulus also occurs for different, specific stimuli
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Discrimination
Response to original stimuli but not other similar stimuli (not paired*)
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Conditioned emotional response
Consist of emotional and physiological responses to a specific object or situation
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Preparedness
The biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli
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Conditioned taste aversion
The dislike of food or drink because it was paired with illness
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Latent inhibition
Occurs when frequent experience with a stimulus before it is paired with a US makes it less likely that conditioning will occur after a single episode of illness
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Evaluative conditioning
An attempt to pair a stimulus with either positive or negative stimuli (eg. political strategy)
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Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is influenced by consequences
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Contingency
A consequence depends on an action
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Reinforcement
A process in which an event of reward that follows a response increases the likelihood of that response occurring again
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Law of effect
The idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again in the same situation, whereas those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely
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Reinforcer
Stimulus contingent upon a response and that increases the probability of that response occurring again
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Punishment
A process that decreases the future probability of a response
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Punisher
A stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that results in a decrease of behaviour
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Positive
Stimulus is added to a situation; refers to reinforcement or punishment
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Negative
Stimulus removed from a situation; refers to reinforcement or punishment
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Negative reinforcement
Involves the strengthening of a behaviour because it removes or diminishes a stimulus
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Avoidance learning
A specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur
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Escape learning
Occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present
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Positive punishment
A process in which a behaviour decreases in frequency because it was followed by a usually unpleasant stimulus
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Negative punishment
Occurs when a behaviour decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular stimulus
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Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations of a specific operant response
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Chaining
Linking together two or more shaped behaviours into a more complex action or sequence of actions
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Applied behaviour analysis (ABA)
Involves using close observation, prompting, and reinforcement to teach behaviours, often to people who experience difficulties and challenges owing to a developmental condition such as autism
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Primary reinforcers
Consist of reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs that affect an organism's ability to survive (or reproduce)
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Secondary reinforcers
Consist of stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn that they have value
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Nucleus accumbens
Brain circuit activated during rewarding activities (eg. smoking a cig, sex)
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Discriminative stimulus
A cue or event that indicates that a response (if made) will be reinforced
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Generalization
This takes place when an operant response occurs in response to a new stimulus that is similar to the stimulus present during the original learning
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Delayed reinforcement
Delayed response of rewarding feeling after stimulus. Hard to establish conditioned behaviour
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Extinction
The weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available
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Reward Devaluation
Behaviour change when reinforcer loses appeal
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Schedules of reinforcement
Rules that determine when reinforcement is available
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Continuous reinforcement
Every response made results in reinforcement. Reward provided every time
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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available
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Ratio schedule
The reinforcements are based on the amount of responding
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Interval Schedule
The reinforcements are based on the amount of time between reinforcements, not the number of responses an organism makes.
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Fixed schedule
The schedule of reinforcement remains the same over time
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Variable schedule
The schedule of reinforcement varies from reinforcement to reinforcement
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Fixed ratio schedule
Reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed. Results in high rates of consistent responses
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Variable ratio schedule
The number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average. High rates of consistent responses - more resistant to the extinction of behaviour (eg. gambling in a casino)
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Fixed interval schedule
Reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes. Will result in slow unsustained responses (increase around time for reinforcement)
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Variable interval schedule
The first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time. Results in slow but consistent responses
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Partial reinforcement effect
Refers to a phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement
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Classical Conditioning Example: Checking to see if the washing machine load is finished
fixed interval
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Classical Conditioning Example: Slot machines
variable ratio
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Classical Conditioning - Repeatedly dialing a busy number
variable interval - person answering reinforcer
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Classical Conditioning Example: A rat gets reinforced for every 10th lever press
fixed ratio
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Operant Conditioning Example: Using drugs to avoid withdrawal symptoms
negative reinforcement
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Operant Conditioning Example: Being fined for a speeding ticket
positive punishment
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Operant Conditioning Example: Not allowed outside because you didnt come home before dark
negative punishment
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Operant Conditioning Example: A compliment from a supervisor at work
positive reinforcement
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Difference between classical and operant conditioning
Classical - associate involuntary response and stimulus. Operant - associate behaviour a
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Operant - associate voluntary behaviour and consequence
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Latent learning
learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful
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Observational learning
Involves changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others
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Attention
Must pay attention to behaviour of others and consequences
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Retention
Storing mental representation in memory
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Reproduction
Need to use what you saw as overt behaviour. To imitiate a behaviour we must string together the correct pattern of responses
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Motivation
You need to be motivated to reproduce the behaviour
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Imitation
Recreating someone else's motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal
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Mirror neurons
Neurons are linked to functions ranging from understanding people's emotional states to observational learning
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Stimulus organism response theory
Highlights the role played by an individual's interpretation of a situation
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Higher order conditioning
Where we may start to pair a conditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus through a learning process. This leads to a conditioned response
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Vicarious learning
learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action
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Social learning theory
Social conditions are important determinants of behaviour
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Bandura proposed humans are neither compelled by inner forces not totally controlled via envioronment. (classical / instrumental conditioning) Rather, via interactions between behaviors and the conditions that control them
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Eg. bandura's bobo doll experiment: modelling of aggression w/ kids
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Mirror neurons
Activated when you are doing an action or watching someone else perform the same action
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Internally represent action
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Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
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Stores
retain information in memory without using it for any specific purpose
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Control processes
Shift information from one memory store to another
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Attention
Selects which information will be passed on to STM
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Encoding
The process of storing information in the LTM system
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Attention needs to focus on things that are relevant for the processing of information
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Encoding failure
Did not remember (perhaps due to lack of relevance)
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Storage decay
Things become more difficult to retrieve since it's been long since the last retrieval
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Retrieval failure
the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues. May be able to access the memory at another time or with a cue
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Sensory memory
A memory store that accurately holds perceptual information for a very brief amount of time (image or sound echo)
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Echoic memory
The auditory form of sensory memory (2-5 secs long)
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Iconic memory
The visual form of sensory memory
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Episodic memory
A temporal sequence of visual surroundings
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Short-term memory
A memory store with limited capacity and duration (30 sec approx). Most people can hold 7 items in short-term memory before they start dropping things from their memory to add new information
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Chunking
Organizing smaller units into larger, more meaningful units (eg. using the cornell note taking technique for lectures)
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Long-term memory
Long-term storage for long periods of time
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No capacity limitation