Framing A New Government

Advocates of Reform

During the 1780s, people in the newly formed United States started to argue how the government should be structured. Many wealthier and powerful people advocated for a reform of the government, especially in the form of creating a stronger national government. The Articles of Confederation created in the decade before were proving not to be strong enough to keep the country together, prompting a radical reform of the United State’s national government.

• Alexander Hamilton: an advocate for a stronger national government in the early years of the US, a successful New York lawyer and illegitimate son of a Scottish merchant in the West Indies

A Divided Convention

To establish their new government, delegates or representatives from each state gathered at a convention in the Philadelphia State House in 1787 from May to September. Many arguments over what legislative power should be given and what that would look like going forward ensued.

• Virginia Plan: James Madison’s proposed plan that called for a two-house national legislature, with states represented in both bodies in proportion of their population (origin of House of Reps)

• New Jersey Plan: William Paterson’s counter proposal to the Virginia plan, retained plan from Confederation with a one-house legislature in which all states had equal representation (Senate)

Compromise

The stifling summer months and overall attitude of the men created a hostile deliberation. Eventually, the Constitution was drafted and ratified, outlining the three branches of the national government (legislative, executive, and judicial) and the powers they would hold.

• Constitution: the new document created in the constitutional convention, laid groundwork for people’s rights, the governmental system, and details of each branch of government

The Constitution of 1787

James Madison drafted the majority of the new document, the Constitution. While it was a limited document, it introduced unprecedented governmental structures to the world, which left it open to many interpretations within the representatives and common citizens alike.

• James Madison: rich plantation owner and Virginia delegate. Proposed Virginia plan, drafted large part of the Constitution

• federalism: division of powers between the national and state governments, with the Constitution at the top considered as “supreme law”

• separation of powers: the process of preventing any single group or tyrannical individual from dominating the government

• checks and balances: a system where each branch of government can “check” the other and prevent any one branch from overreaching

• citizenship: the legal recognition of a person’s inclusion in a body politic through the granting of rights and privileges

Debating the Past: The Meaning of the Constitution

Many scholars and historians, as well as politicians in present day interpret the constitution differently. Ironically, it was also ambiguously interpreted shortly after its conception, and both federalists and antifederalists alike pointed to parts of the constitution they supported or opposed.

Adoption and Adaptation

Federalists and Antifederalists

Debates over the Constitution started brewing, the main split being between “Federalists,” and those who supported a strong national government and direct interpretation of the Constitution. However, people who were in stark opposition of this (dubbed “Antifederalists”) argued that the Constitution gave the federal government too much power and argued to add amendments immediately to protect individual rights.

• Federalists: people in a political party that held the Constitution and national government as the main power and advocated for a stronger unifying government

• The Federalist Papers: a series of essays published in newspapers and later compiled into a book, written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay on the meaning and virtues of the Constitution, saying it was “necessary and proper” to execute the government’s authority

• Antifederalists: opposers of Federalists, believed they defended the true principles of the Revolution through advocating for individual rights to prevent the national government from overextending its reach

Completing the Structure

The first President of the United States, George Washington, was elected under the new structure of government implemented by the Constitution. The Bill of Rights, or the first Ten Amendments, were added to the Constitution as well.

• John Adams: a leading Federalist who was vice president to Washington and later became the second President of the United States

• Bill of Rights: the first ten amendments added to the Constitution, placing limitations of the government forbidding it to infringe on certain fundamental human rights, including freedom of religion, speech, and the press, immunity from arbitrary arrest, trial by jury, etc.

Federalists and Republicans

Hamilton and the Federalists

Alexander Hamilton, a strong supporter of the federal government and Secretary of Treasury, started to create national bank systems, amass national debt, and credit money. This was in strong support of Federalists, but angered those who opposed the national government’s increasing power.

Enacting the Federalist Program

Few members of Congress denied Hamilton’s systems introduced for funding and paying off the National debt. This was a huge win for Federalists, and they were able to instate excise taxes, tariffs, and other forms of collecting revenue for the government.

The Republican Opposition

A new party started to form, in opposition to the Federalists. Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison pushed back on the national bank, federal taxes, and other strong governmental policies.

• Republicans: one party who valued a more modest national government and individual rights, with the idea that the country should remain predominantly rural and agrarian

Establishing National Sovereignty

Securing the West

Western areas of the country were largely lawless, even after the establishment of the NorthWest ordinance. Farmers and settlers rebelled in areas with heavy opposition to federalism and the recently imposed taxes.

• Whiskey Rebellion: in 1794, farmers in western Pennsylvania raised a major challenge to federal authority when they refused to pay the new whiskey excise tax proposed by Hamilton and began terrorizing tax collectors in the region.

Maintaining Neutrality

The French Revolution and wars between Great Britain and France created a tenuous relationship between foreign nations and the US. Many American ships were seized or blockaded by both the English and French in some cases, leading to American diplomats being sent to negotiate and sign treaties.

• Jay’s Treaty: a treaty negotiated by John Jay in 1794 which settled conflict with Britain during the war between them and France, and solidified American control in Northwest territory

• Pinckney’s Treaty: negotiated by Thomas Pinckney in 1795, Spain recognized the right of Americans to navigate the Mississippi to deposit goods at New Orleans, fixing northern boundary of Florida, and prevent Native Americans from launching raids across the border

Consider the Source: Washington’s Farewell Address

Washington, an icon of impartiality at the time, champions for neutrality and to not sir things up too much in foreign affairs. He states that the furthest extent of foreign relations should be economical, and not spread to political or diplomatic entanglements. He also warns against the dangers of political parties in the States.

The Downfall of the Federalists

The Election of 1796

George Washington set the precedent for the President to only serve two terms as he stepped down in 1796. Jefferson and Adams ran, with John Adams winning the election and becoming the second President of the United States. Since Jefferson was the runner up, he became Vice President.

The Quasi War with France

When French ships captured American ships at sea, tensions between the countries quickly escalated. Diplomats attempted to smoothen the relationship, however the refusal from France to release the ships made things worse. Eventually, diplomatic, political, and economical aspects of French and America were either cut off or retaliated against.

• XYZ Affair: President John Adams sent Congress a commissioner's report but redacted the three French agents and addressed them as X, Y, Z. When published, the report provoked widespread popular outrage against France’s actions and strong popular support for the Federalists’ response

• quasi war: not officially declared a war, but still going through many actions associated with war aside from fighting. America cut all trade with France, authorized American vessels to capture French armed ships, and engaged in naval skirmishes

Repression and Protest

Federalists attempted to gain more influence in Congress under the terms that the French conflict needed to be handled with a strong national government. John Adams took the opportunity to place heavier restrictions on criticism of the government, as well as restrictions on immigration and what defined a “citizen” of America.

• Alien and Sedition Acts: created and implemented by the Federalists to attempt to silence Republicans, the Alien act placed new obstacles in the way of foreigners who wished to become citizens, Sedition act allowed government to prosecute those who engaged in “sedition”

• The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: written by Jefferson and Madison, they relied on the ideas of John Locke and the Tenth Amendment which gave states the power to create laws or rules not explicitly granted by the federal government

The “Revolution” of 1800

Controversy and massive distaste for John Adam’s policies led to a loss of Federalist support and a gain of Republican support. This pushed Thomas Jefferson to win the Presidential election of 1800 and made him the third President of the United States.

• “Revolution of 1800": when Jefferson was elected president and finally inaugurated, bringing relief to the republicans as they believed they were saving the country from tyranny

Conclusion

Comprehension Questions

1. How did the Constitution of 1787 attempt to resolve the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?

2. What role did The Federalist Papers play in the battle over ratification of the Constitution?

3. What were the main tenets of Alexander Hamilton’s financial program?

4. What diplomatic crises did the United States face in the first decade of its existence, and how did the new government respond to these crises?

5. What was the “Revolution of 1800” and in what way was it a revolution?