civil rights mid-unit exam

Emmett Till murdered (Continuity)

• a 14 year old Chicago boy is visiting MS when he is kidnapped, brutally beaten, shot and dumped in the Tallahatchie River

• mother made postmortem photographs public to show nation the impacts of Jim Crow

• 2 men are tried and not found guilty by all white jury

• FBI discovered new evidence and new ppl connected recently but chose not to pursue charges

John Lewis

• head of SNCC who was 1 of the Freedom Riders and was the pivotal architect of March on WA

• spoke before MLK and gave speech that was less palatable to white audiences

• leader of Selma to Montgomery March and 1st to be attacked on Blody Sunday

• served in Congress

Malcolm X

• family history and family being broken up contributed to views on American society

• apart of the NOI

• appealed to desperate ppl in the suburbs and belittled other CR leaders for passivity

• left NOI after he realized they did not follow the proper teachings + moral righteousness was not enough

• dismissed non-violence as a way to achieve rights - favored violence in response to violence

• assassinated weeks after he visited MLK’s wife by NOI

Legacy of Malcolm X

• always important to remember that he left the NOI

• legacy should be evolution of perspectives and his influences on what will become Black Pride movement

• willingness to work w those who had different perspectives should be remembered

• killed for his evolution

Legacy of MLK

• lionized and sanctified by mainstream media/politicians as singular voice of CRE

• death become synonymous with the end of CRE era

  • this was damaging for 2 reasons:

    • MLK became oversimplified and lost complexity of his work and as a person

    • his legacy/legacy of the era morphs into idea that racism has been solved

Key Organizations

SNCC: created by students > shifted militant when Carmichael was in control/Lewis left

MIA: Montgomery Improvement Association (think boycotts)

SCLC: Christian Conference by MLK (think non-violence)

CORE: Congress of Racial Equality

NOI: leader Muhammad reflected white rhetoric - stating white ppl were created by evil and AA were gods chosen ppl

Black Panther Party: combo of Marxist-Leninism, Pan Africanism and Black Nationalism (radical left) that saw benefits working with everyone

Stokely Carmichael

• leader of SNCC who pushed for a “black only” movement

  • happened due to fractures in overall movement during James Meredith March (Continuity)

    • this march led by Meredith who had integrated Uni of MS and marched from TN to MS to publicize racism in south + promote voter registration

    • was shot and MLK, Carmichael, and McKissick (CORE) replaced him and continued

    • fractures came from police attack that made it hard for ppl to uphold non-violent philosophy/justify leaving it behind

• used the phrase “Black Power” in a speech > promoted AA pride and solidarity w community (clothing w AA color scheme, “Black” replaced Negro, culture celebrated)

Power Dynamics of Militancy and Rage

• marginalized groups have power/pride movements to combat subjugation and shame inflicted

• about equality/power to equalize, not diminish

• white power/pride is racist as they alr have power and have never been made to feel shame

Psychological Impacts of Militancy and Rage

• very hard for those of privilege/power to understand the collective/individual psychological abuse that leads to existence of civil unrest

• white politicians used term “race riot” to instill fear in white populations against minority groups

• “race riots” originally perpetuated by white ppl

• in retrospect, the terms “civil unrest,” “disturbance,” and “uprising” or “rebellion” are starting o replace the term “riot”

Kerner Report

• LBJ established bipartisan task force known now as Kerner Committee

• report that accurately stated that nation was moving towards 2 societies - Black and white/separate but unequal

• LBJ and gov of Mich (Romney) understood the cause and stated it publically

• many observers at the time thought it was outside agitators causing the unrest (no evidence)

• comm. stated whites were implicated in creating problems

• policy reform would include: creating 2mil new jobs, 6mil new housing, revamp welfare, eliminating de facto school segregation and “abrasive” practice by police, making local governs more responsible, etc

• became NY bestseller but then lost traction

  • Johnson stopped supporting bc he felt he wasn’t given enough credit for CR work (Affirmation Action Executive)

  • media and mainstream white Americans did not focus on findings > allowed for continuation of perpetuated stereotypes

Selma March on Wedge Point

• Selma voting rights Campaign (SNCC) was alr 2 years in when MLK came to Selma to plan march

• Lewis pushed back on military factions who argued the marches were performative

• march met w police violence and initiated leaning towards militance

• 3 activists murdered and on Bloody Sunday, Lewis was brutally beaten but remained supporting non-violent movement

• considered in getting Voting Rights act of ‘65

Voting Rights Act Approved (1965)

• banned literacy tests

• provided fed oversight if voter registration in areas where less than 50% of nonwhite population had not registered

• after passage, southern Black registration went up by over 50%

• bc voter registration determined jury selection, this aided in creating more just jury process in the south

  • this entire act got gutted in 2013 when SC declared individual had to claim and prove disenfranchisement (Shelby County v Holder)

  • aimed disenfranchisement of voters under guise of “election security”

Loving v Virginia (Change)

• interracial marriage was illegality was struck down by this

• 14A “equal protection” clause was primary statue that protected marriage rights among all races

• this case will legally undercut racist rhetoric on “miscegenation” - culturally it still exists

• case will regularly be referenced as precedent in court cases addressing same sex marriage rights

Bombing of 16th St Baptist Church, Birmingham (Continuity)

• 4 blacks girls killed in Alabama

• justice delayed w 1st conviction of 3 not coming until ‘77 and other 2 not coming until the 2000s

• 2 weeks after march on WA, this is be a reminder on reality of racial injustice

• represents “1 step forward, 2 steps back” > pattern will breed frustration and conflict among activists in the movement

MS Summer Freedom Project (Change)

• organized by CORE, SNCC, and 100 CR workers seeking to register black ppl to vote in MS

• workers met w violent resistance - 3 CR workers were murdered by KKK

• often cited as event that marks start of final fracturing of the CR movement > also given credit as the final push that ld to passing on CR Act of 64

Birmingham Campaign (Change and Continuity)

• MLK and SCLC planned campaign to oppose local laws that were supporting segregation in the city

• hoped to force fed response knowing there would be violent backlash

• Kennedy still trying to stay out of CRE

• violent counter protests break out and MLK is arrested for inciting violence

  • during 8 day period, he writes letters from Birmingham Jail and 8 clergyman who told him to delay demonstrations > becomes widely/nationally published

• Children’s Crusade

  • children march with adults and are attacked by police dogs

  • media coverage prompts fed response

  • Kennedy sent troops and mediators to negotiate desegregation agreements while never speaking of racial strife

March on WA (Change)

• largest CR display in US history to hear speeches and protect racial injustice

• combo effort of SNCC, SCLC, NAACP, CORE

• JFK avoided attending or meeting w orgs prior but impressed w march that he met w them briefly afterwards

• his push for what would become CR Act of ‘64 bolstered by march and national media coverage

  • act of 64 passed law forbidding discrimination in many areas of life: hotels, voting, jobs, etc

Boycotting of Buses in Montgomery (Change)

• WPC (Women’s Political Counsel) created by Robinson refused to give up seats on bus as an act of civil disobedience

• Rosa Parks refuses to give up seat (not accidental - she was a long time activist)

  • MIA formed after this and MLk elected pres

• spiraling: MLK house bombed, lawsuit challgened legality of segregated buses (city officials tried to break boycott thru conspiracy charges), court ruled Mont, bus issue was violation of 14A > SC affirmed it

• promoted non-violent resistance and power of unity

Disruption Through Sit-ins (Change and Continuity)

• grounded in non-violent direct action by showing up and demanding the same treatment as whites

• Greensboro: students from college sat at lunch counter, were denied service but returned w a large group > acquired media coverage due to being harassed by whites > continued until they accepted mayoral request to stop to reach resolution

• students from vanderbilt protested but are attacked by white teens (police arrest demonstrators and not attackers) - continuity

  • the lawyer, Looby, has his house bombed > thousands marched to city hall and Mayor West agreed racial segregation was wrong

  • led to nationwide integration of lunch counters

  • SNCC created

Freedom Riders

• started by CORE to achieve goals of fed govern choosing to protect AA and SC decisions made segregated transportation and similar institutions unconstitutional

• interracial men and women sitting next to e/o to defy Jim Crow

• Freedom Riders attacked (police gave KKK permission) in Alabama > gains media coverage thru photos

• FBI and Attorney Gen alr aware of potential violence but it did nothing since when AG informed police, police had alr encouraged it

• Kennedy annoyed w everyone since he was dealing with Cold War

• Pres ordered supplement of a bus since FRiders wanted to continue or else fed violation but his rep and Riders were beaten

• Kennedy called for cooling off period > they didn’t listen and continued to MS

• King declined invitation to avoid probation > riders on probation too but still continuing so King lost support

• Kennedy made deal w MS senator that they could arrest riders if no violence happened (which happens)

• admin banned segregation on interstate buses but AA did not have active support of fed govern