Studied by 4 people
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
“I knew that for sure”
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00)
variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured
validity
the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center
dendrites
a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
refractory period
a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
(neuron)
all or nothing response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
nerves
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
inter neurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress
pituitary gland
the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
lesion
tissue destruction
EEG
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
MEG
a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity
CT scan
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue
fMRI
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
limbic system
neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
amygdala
two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
frontal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
parietal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
temporal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
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