Key Concepts in Attitudes, Personality, and Stress

Attitude

People's evaluations of other people, objects, events, or ideas. Ex: preference for a particular brand of detergent.

Characteristics of attitudes predicting behavior

Strong and personally relevant attitudes, specific attitudes, direct experience, attitudes that come to mind quickly.

Cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that people seek psychological consistency and feel discomfort when their attitudes conflict, motivating them to reduce the dissonance.

Study supporting cognitive dissonance theory

Festinger and Carlsmith's study: Participants paid $1 to lie changed their attitudes to reduce dissonance; those paid $20 did not.

Bystander effect

People are less likely to help when others are present.

Factors influencing the bystander effect

Diffusion of responsibility, fear of social blunder, anonymity, cost-benefit analysis.

Reducing bias against outgroups

Through cooperation toward shared goals, as shown in realistic conflict theory studies.

Explicit and implicit attitudes

Explicit: conscious, reportable attitudes. Implicit: unconscious, automatic attitudes.

Test measuring implicit attitudes

The Implicit Association Test (IAT).

Factors influencing message persuasiveness

Source (who delivers it), content (what's said), receiver (who hears it).

Elaboration likelihood model

Persuasion occurs via central route (motivated, analytical) or peripheral route (unmotivated, superficial cues).

Difference between personal and situational attributions

Personal: internal traits. Situational: external causes.

Correspondence bias

The tendency to attribute others' behavior to their disposition rather than the situation.

Actor/observer discrepancy

We attribute our own actions to situations, others' actions to dispositions.

Stereotypes leading to prejudice and discrimination

Stereotypes → Prejudice (negative beliefs) → Discrimination (behavioral response).

Reducing prejudice and discrimination

Perspective taking and perspective giving.

Stereotype threat

Performance declines when people fear confirming a stereotype about their group.

Big Five personality traits

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Twin studies on personality traits

Identical twins more alike than fraternal twins. Genetics account for 40-60% of trait variation.

Personality

A person's consistent thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors.

Personality trait

A consistent pattern in thoughts, emotions, and behavior.

Temperaments

Biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways.

Examples of temperaments

Emotionality, sociability, activity level.

Do childhood temperaments persist?

Yes; undercontrolled children more likely to have adult behavioral issues.

Difference between extraversion and introversion

Extraverts are outgoing; introverts are reserved.

Difference between neuroticism and emotional stability

Neuroticism = mood swings; stability = consistent moods.

What is rRST and how does it relate to personality?

BAS (reward sensitivity) → extraversion; BIS (punishment sensitivity) → neuroticism; FFFS = danger avoidance.

What is locus of control?

Internal: control lies within. External: control lies outside self.

What are humanistic theories of personality?

Focus on personal growth and fulfillment.

Define self-actualization

Reaching one's potential through self-understanding.

What is unconditional positive regard?

Accepting and loving a child regardless of behavior.

What is situationism?

Behavior depends more on the situation than personality.

What is interactionism?

Behavior is shaped by both situations and personality traits.

Strong vs. weak situations

Strong: constrain personality (e.g., job interview); Weak: allow expression (e.g., parties).

How do life events and age change personality?

Age: more self-controlled, agreeable. Life events: predictable shifts.

What is cultural influence on personality?

Culture affects trait expression, but Big Five are universal.

Idiographic vs. nomothetic approaches

Idiographic: focus on individuals; Nomothetic: compare traits between people.

Pros and cons of self-report measures

Pros: targeted, checks for accuracy. Cons: potential dishonesty.

Who judges personality more accurately—self or others?

Friends: better on observable traits. Self: better on internal traits.

What is stress?

A response involving anxiety or tension.

What is the HPA axis?

Hypothalamus → Pituitary → Adrenal glands → Cortisol. Helps with energy mobilization; shut off by feedback loop.

What are the stages of General Adaptation Syndrome?

Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion.

Do stressors always cause stress?

No; depends on interpretation (e.g., public speaking may excite or scare).

What is allostatic load?

Cumulative wear from chronic stress on bodily systems.

What is the tend-and-befriend response?

Stress response involving care-giving and social bonding, especially in women.

How does stress affect the immune system?

B cells (antibodies), T cells (attack invaders), NK cells (kill viruses). Stress weakens response.

How does stress relate to heart disease?

Chronic stress → high BP, cortisol, artery plaque → heart risk.

What is problem-focused vs. emotion-focused coping?

Problem-focused: tackle the issue. Emotion-focused: regulate feelings.

Other coping mechanisms

Positive reappraisal, downward comparisons, creating positive meaning.