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Digital Computer
Fast electronic machine for processing digitized information.
Computer Program
List of instructions stored internally for processing.
Computer Memory
Internal storage for programs and data during execution.
Personal Computer
Common computer used in homes and offices.
Workstation
High-powered desktop computer for engineering applications.
Mainframe
Large computer for business data processing.
Supercomputer
Used for large-scale numerical calculations.
Input Unit
Accepts coded information from users or devices.
Examples of Input Devices
Keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, barcode reader.
Primary Storage
Fast memory where programs are executed.
Word Length
Number of bits processed as a single unit.
Memory Access Time
Time to access one word in memory.
Random-Access Memory (RAM)
Memory allowing access to any location quickly.
Secondary Storage
Used for storing large amounts of data.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Executes most operations and contains registers.
Control Unit (CU)
Directs operations and sends control signals.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Combination of ALU and CU in a computer.
Output Unit
Sends processed results to external devices.
Von Neumann Architecture
Stored program architecture storing programs in memory.
Machine Language
Primitive language consisting of binary code.
Assembly Language
Uses mnemonics to simplify programming tasks.
Bottleneck
Limitation in performance, often in memory access.
Registers
High-speed storage for frequently used operands.
Control Signals
Commands sent by CU to coordinate operations.
Fixed Size Groups
Data processed in groups called words.
Addressing
Assigning distinct addresses to memory locations.
Examples of Output Devices
Monitors, printers, plotters, modems.
Mnemonic
Easy-to-remember abbreviations for programming.
Assembler
Translates assembly language to machine language.
High-Level Language
Uses English-like commands for programming.
Compiler
Translates high-level language to machine language.
FORTRAN
Formula translation programming language.
COBOL
Common business-oriented programming language.
BASIC
Beginner's all-purpose symbolic instruction code.
Pascal
High-level programming language for structured programming.
Compact Code
Machine language format for efficient execution.
Speed
Execution time related to code length.
Flexibility
Low-level languages allow programming freedom.
ADD Instruction
Adds operand from memory to a register.
Program Counter (PC)
Holds address of next instruction to execute.
Memory Address Register (MAR)
Holds address for data transfer in memory.
Memory Data Register (MDR)
Contains data to be read or written.
Instruction Register (IR)
Holds the current instruction being executed.
Bus
Collection of wires connecting computer devices.
Data Bus
Transmits data between devices.
Address Bus
Specifies data location in memory.
Control Bus
Manages control signals within the computer.
Fetch Cycle
Process of retrieving an instruction from memory.
Write Cycle
Process of sending data to memory.
Operand
Data used in an instruction operation.
ALU
Arithmetic Logic Unit for performing calculations.
Subroutine
Reusable code block for specific tasks.
Predefined Functions
Built-in functions simplifying programming tasks.
Single-Bus Structure
All units connect via one bus system.
Bus Control Lines
Arbitrate multiple requests for bus access.
Buffer Registers
Hold data during transfers to prevent delays.
Two-Bus Structure
Uses two buses for I/O and memory transfers.
Peripheral Processor
Controls I/O transfers in two-bus systems.
Memory Locations
Specific addresses where data is stored.
Address Space
Total memory addresses available in a system.
Intel 8088/86
Microprocessor with 1,048,576 addressable locations.
Store Cycle
Transfers data from CPU to memory, overwriting contents.
Data Transfer Instructions
Move data between memory and CPU registers.
Arithmetic Operations
Perform calculations on data in CPU.
Program Sequencing
Controls the order of instruction execution.
Three-Address Instructions
Specify two source operands and one destination.
Two-Address Instructions
Use one destination and one source operand.
One-Address Instructions
Assume one operand is in the accumulator.
Zero-Address Instructions
Operands are defined implicitly within the instruction.
Instruction Fetch
Retrieves instruction from memory to CPU.
Instruction Execute
CPU performs operation specified by instruction.
Straight-Line Sequencing
Executes instructions in increasing address order.
Branching
Repeats instruction sequences in program loops.
Accumulator
Register used for implicit operand storage.
I/O Operations
Manage input and output data transfers.
Operands
Data items used in operations or instructions.
Op-Code Field
Specifies the operation to be performed.
Addressing Information Field
Specifies addresses for operands in instructions.
Memory Management
Organizes and allocates memory for operations.
Data Representation
Memory contents can represent instructions or data.
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