PSY 324: Exam #2 List of Key Terms - Memory & Cognition

Basic Level Advantage

General level of categorizing. For example, we see a dog and say “dog” instead of the breed of dog.

Category Structure

The number of items in a category, the dimensions which determine the membership, and the relationships between the dimesons and values.
3₂⁴
The three is the number of dimensions
The two is the number, levels, or options per dimension
The four is the number of objects

Conceptual Combination

We can conceptualize multiple different existing ideas and combine them into one concept.
Example: Pink chalkboard

Exemplars

A memory trace of a specific example of the category. Based entirely on these memory traces.
Example: Every apple may represent an exemplar. Objects in the category are compared with my apples in my memory to determine category membership.

Hierarchical Concepts

3 levels:
Superordinate (Animal)
Basic Level (Dog)
Subordinate (Poodle)

Prototypes

Mental representations of a category. It is the average characteristics we expect.
Example: A chair

Rules

List of criteria/requirements needed to belong in a category

Six Structures

Studied by Shepard, Hovland, and Jenkins (1961)

Type One: Easiest to remember/learn. One dimension and share a trait
Type Six: Hardest to remember/learn. No pattern

Acoustic Encoding

Concard’s Short-Term Memory (1964)

Encoding information based on auditory functions. Includes rhythm and sounds.

Context Effects

Recalling information better in the environment/space we learned it in originally.
Example: Underwater/Land Study.

Forgetting (Decay, Interference, Overwriting)

Decay: we completely forget information/memory. Decays overtime. Use it or lose it!

Interference: Memories get in the way of others. New information may overshadow old information, and old information may overshadow new information.

Overwriting: New information/memories will replace old information/memories.

Primacy Effect

Part of Serial Position Effects & Long-Term Memory.

We are more likely to recall the FIRST few items on a list. First item advantage!

Recency Effect

Part of Serial Position Effects & Long-Term Memory.

We are more likely to recall the LAST few items on a list. Last item advantage!

Semantic Encoding (Wickens, 1972)

Encoding by meaning or category.
Example: you won’t mistake flowers for a car

Serial Position Effect

Includes primary and recency effects.

Sensory Memory (Iconic, Echoic, & Haptic)

The initial stage of information storage. It stores information for an instant, for about 0.5 to 3 seconds.

Iconic: Visual Stimuli
Echoic: Auditory Stimuli
Haptic: Tactile/Touch Stimuli.

Short-Term Memory

Lasts 20-30 seconds
7 plus/minus 2.

Example: phone numbers.

Working Memory & Components

Memory that is being processed into short term memory which includes 3 processes.

Phonological Loop: Memory by repetition and rehearsal. Repeating items in your head/mind to keep short-term memory active.

Visuospatial Sketchpad: Visual and Spatial information. This is the ability to maintain and manipulate (rotating a cow in your head).

Central Executive: Allocates resources and attention. Performs and acts on non-sensory information.

Amnesia (Anterograde and Retrograde)

Anterograde is the inability to form NEW memories: information gained AFTER an accident.

Retrograde is the inability to recall/loss of old memories: information gained BEFORE an accident.

Declarative Memory

Also known as EXPLICIT MEMORY.

It is memory of factual information. We can recall it whenever, as we are concious and aware.

Episodic Memory

Memory of autobiographical events. Information associated with it’s source.

Memories allow us to form boundaries for generalizations with exceptions.

Hierarchical Model of Semantic Memory

Predicts that reaction times are slower in recall the farther up the ladder one goes.
Example: We are more likely to say a lizard is an animal rather than a reptile.

Levels of Processing Effect

Studied by Craik and Tulving (1975)

The study of memory recall based on how it is encoded. There are three levels.
Semantic > Acoustic > Visual

Procedural Memory

Part of IMPLICIT Memory.

It is an unconscious process that works like muscle memory.

Semantic Memory

Part of DECLARATIVE Memory.

It is general knowledge, including facts and categories. Often, remembering words, ideas, and meanings in linguistics is part of Semantic Memory.

Eyewitness Testimony

Part of Misinformation Effect

Witnesses rely on their own episodic memory to recall and recount events pertaining to cases.
Memory can be impacted for the worse by misleading information or misleading questions.

Flashbulb Memories (& the role of Personal Impact)

Memories of highly significant events or those that seem to be “burned” into our minds.
We assume that these memories hold special importance and that we recall them with accuracy and precision.

The more personal the impact, the STRONGER the memory.

“You’re going to remember where you were and what you were doing!”

Misinformation Effect

Memory can be impacted for the worse by misleading information or misleading questions.

Reconstructive Memory

Memory as process of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
It gives the impression that memories we retrieve are the same as those encoded, however things may be remembered imperfectly.

Retrieving complex memories may be more difficult than merely retrieving original data, which may need to be reconstructed piece by piece. Though, there is a possibility of putting them together incorrectly.

Relationship of Understanding & Memory

Two-way relationship, memory influences understanding and vice versa.

Repression and Suppression

Repression: Unconsciously blocking out a memory. By an unconscious mechanism, our mind, blocks our access to traumatic memories to protect us

Suppression: Consciously blocking out a memory. We protect ourselves consciously by blocking out (a) traumatic memory.

Schemas

To recall an experience that you expect to have been there. For example, if you remember a play you went to, do you remember the play exactly or are you remembering your SCHEMA of what you EXPECT(ED) to be there.

Analog Representations

Mimic the structure of a referent object, including the relationship among its components. (Visual mimicry)

If we see a picture of an apple in our mind for example

Dual-Coding Hypothesis

Related to encoding, implying two ways: analog and propositional.
It is the hypothesis of being able to access both of these.

Visual Information is ANALOG & PROPOSITIONAL.
Non-Visual Information is ONLY Propositional

Face Recognition

We can recognize facial details, more than most other types of images.

Mental Rotation

Evidence that we rely on visual information sometimes.

Picture Superiority Effect

We remember visual images better than abstract non-visual information. This deals with dual-coding hypothesis.

Propositional Representations

Abstract relations that do not reflect any sensory modality, such as the direction from A to B. Consider a map, for example. It is an abstract relation.

Selective Interference

A selective interference study may look like this (Segal & Fusella, 1970):

> A participant is asked to either imagine some visual object (e.g. a tree),

imagine some sound (e.g. typing on keys), or form no image.

> Simultaneously, the participant is presented with a simple visual or

auditory stimulus (or no stimulus).

> The subject indicates “yes” or “no” if a stimulus was presented