PSY 100: Chapter 7

Based on lecture slides & textbook (didn't do reading myself, asked chapGPT to add context to prof's slides using textbook)

Learning

• Definition

• Purpose

Def: Relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge resulting from experience. 

Purpose: 

Learning enables…

• adaptation 

• survival 

• skill acquisition

You go to a cafe to study. After several of minutes of working on your laptop, you tune out background noise.

What type of learning is this an example of?

Habituation (non-associative learning)

Sally is on a road trip with her family. During the first hour of the trip, Sally’s little sister Mara repeatedly pokes her. Sally becomes increasingly irritated. 

What type of learning is than example of?

Sensitization (Non-associative learning)

Pavlov’s dogs salivating in response to bell ringing is an example of which type of learning?

Classical conditioning (associative learning)

Studying to earn praise from others is an example of which type of learning?

Operant conditioning (associative learning)

Harry learns to tie his shoes by watching his dad tie his own shoes.

What type of learning is this an example of?

Observational Learning

Solving a puzzle by thinking it through is an example of what type of learning?

Cognitive learning

Define “Stimulus”.

Def: Any event or object that causes a detectable change in the environment that evokes/elicits a sensory or behavioural response in an organism.

External Stimuli v.s. Internal Stimuli 

• Provide examples

External Stimuli —> Event/object from outside world (outside of an  organism) that evokes a sensory or behavioural response.

Usually detected by the 5 traditional senses (sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste)

Examples:

• Bright light —> triggers pupil constriction or blinking

• Loud noise —> may cause a startle reflex or increase alertness

Internal Stimuli —> Event/object that originate w/in an organism that evokes a sensory or behavioural responsr

Examples: 

• Increase in body temperature —> activates sweating to cool down

• Hunger —> leads to food-seeking behaviour

• Tiredness —> leads to sleeping

The 3 Core Types of Learning

• Name

• Define

• Briefly describe its key features

1. Non-associative learning — habituation & sensitization

2. Associative learning — classical & operant conditioning

3. Observational/Cognitive learning — modelling & internal processes

(1) NON-ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

Def: Type of learning based on repeated exposure to a single stimulus.

Key Features:

• No pairing of stimuli

• 2 forms: habituation & sensitization

(2) ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

Def: Learning by forming connections b/w 2 stimuli or b/w 1 stimulus & a behaviour

Key Features:

• Involves conditioning

  • The 2 types of conditioning are classical & operant

(3) OBSERVATIONAL/COGNITIVE LEARNING

Def: Learning by watching others or through mental processes like reasoning.

Key Features:

• Involves modelling, imitation, & mental insight

• Can occur w/o direct experience

Habituation 

• Definition

• Example 

• Adaptive Function

Def: Decrease in behavioural response after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Example: You stop noticing your fridge hum over time.

Adaptive Function: Conserves attention & energy for more relevant stimuli

Sensitization 

• Definition

• Example 

• Adaptive Function

Def: Increase in behavioural response after exposure to a strong/threatening stimulus.

Example: After you hear a sudden loud noise, you become more alert to faint sounds.

Adaptive Function: Increases one’s awareness in potentially dangerous situations

In _______________________, a stimulus is any detectable change in the environment that influences perception or behaviour.

In neuroscience or psychology, a stimulus is any detectable change in the environment that influences perception or behaviour.

___________ and ___________ are considered the two fundamental forms of non-associative learning. Therefore, they don’t involve ________________ stimuli together.

Habituation and sensitization are considered the two fundamental forms of non-associative learning. Therefore, they don’t involve associating two stimuli together.

T or F: Non-associative forms of learning are seen widely across several various species.

True

Classical Conditioning

• type of associative learning 

• neural stimulus becomes associated w/ stimulus that naturally produces a response (unconditioned stimulus)

• eventually evokes the neural response on its own, even w/o the unconditioned stimulus

Describe the following key terms relating to classical conditioning:

• NS

• US

• UR

• CS

• CR

NS = Neutral Stimulus

• Initially does not trigger a response

• E.g. bell ringing

US = Unconditioned Stimulus

• Naturally triggers a response

• E.g. food

UR = Unconditioned Response

• Natural reaction to US

• E.g. salivation in response to food

CS = Conditioned Stimulus 

• Former NS that now triggers the same response as the US 

• E.g. bell ringing after conditioning is completed

CR = Conditioned Response 

• Learned response to the CS 

• E.g. salivation in response to the bell

Who pioneered classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov — studied salivary reflexes in dogs

Describe Pavlov’s experiment.

Component	Description	Example
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)	Naturally produces a response	Meat powder
Unconditioned Response (UCR)	Automatic, unlearned reaction	Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)	Previously neutral, now triggers response	Tone
Conditioned Response (CR)	Learned response to CS	Salivation to tone

Name the 3 key processes of classical conditioning.

1. Acquisition  

2. Extinction (AKA “Test Phase” or “Evaluation Phase)

3. Spontaneous Recovery

Acquisition (in classical conditioning) 

• What is it? What happens?

• Example (using Pavlov experiment)

What is it? What happens?

• initial phase of classical conditioning

• neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US)

• continues until NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR)

Example

Bell (NS) + Food (US) —> Dog Salivates (CR)

• bell is rung just before food is presented

• over time, dog begins to salivate to the bell alone

Extinction (in classical conditioning) 

• What is it? What happens?

• Example (using Pavlov experiment)

What is it? What happens?

• period of classical conditioning that can occur after initial phase ( doesn’t always happen)

• researchers determine whether learning has truly occurred 

• CS is presented w/o US repeatedly —> leads to decrease in the CR 

Example

Sometimes bell rings w/o food being presented → salivation fades

Spontaneous Recovery (in classical conditioning) 

• What is it? What happens?

• Example (using Pavlov experiment)

What is it? What happens?

• After extinction, the CR may suddenly reappear when the CS is presented again — even without further conditioning.

• Shows that the original learning isn’t fully erased.

Example

• Dog salivates to bell again after a pause, despite extinction

The “Test Phase” in classical conditioning is also referred to as the __________ phase or __________ phase.

The “Test Phase” in classical conditioning is also referred to as the extinction phase or evaluation phase.

Explain how advertising uses classical conditioning.

Describe the specific components (UCS, CS, CR).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Attractive person naturally elicits positive emotions (UCR).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Product is repeatedly paired with the attractive person.

• Conditioned Response (CR): Eventually, the product alone evokes positive emotions — even without the person present.

This is why brands use celebrities or appealing imagery to condition emotional responses to their products.

How is classical conditioning used in school classrooms?

Describe the specific components (UCS, CS, CR).

• UCS: Teacher lecture naturally leads to silence (UCR) — students quiet down.

• CS: Music stopping is paired with the start of the lecture.

• CR: Eventually, music stopping alone triggers silence — students anticipate the lecture.

Which is why teachers often use cues like music or lights to condition classroom behaviour.

The Little Albert Experiment showed that phobias can be learned through __________.

The Little Albert Experiment showed that phobias can be learned through association.

(a) Describe the findings of the Little Albert Experiment.

Make sure to describe the specific components (UCS, CS, CR).

(b) What did key concepts Watson & Rayner’s “Little Albert” study demonstrate? Explain what these concepts mean,

(a) The findings of the Little Albert Experiment.

• UCS: Loud noise causes crying (UCR) — a natural fear response.

• CS: White rat is paired with the loud noise.

• CR: Eventually, the white rat alone triggers fear — even without the noise.

Albert learned to fear the rat and later generalized fear to other white fuzzy stimuli (e.g., rabbit, fur coat).

(b) Key Concepts Demonstrated

Emotional Conditioning

• Process by which NS becomes associated w/ emotional response 

• Shows that emotions (e.g. fear, joy, anxiety) can be triggered by specific cues

If a child is bitten by a dog, they may later feel fear when seeing any dog, even without being bitten again. 

(a) This is an example of what type of conditioning?

(b) Identify the classical conditioning components in this scenario (e.g. CS, UCR, US, etc.) 

(a) This is an example of what type of conditioning?

Emotional Conditioning 

(b) Identify the classical conditioning components in this scenario (e.g. CS, UCR, US, etc.) 

child being bitten by a dog (UCS = fear)

child feels fear again (CR) when seeing any dog (CS) 

Stimulus Generalization

• Definition

• Significance

Definition: Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus, even if those new stimuli were never directly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Significance: Demonstrates how learned responses (CRs) can occur in response to cues that are similar to original CS.

Temporal Continuity

• Def

• Relevance to classical conditioning

• Example

Def: Principle stating that learning is more effective when 2 events — typically a stimulus & a response — occur close together in time 

Relevance to Classical Conditioning

During classical conditioning, A NS (neutral stimulus) & US (unconditioned stimulus) must be presented close in time for association to form b/w the two.

Example

If a bell (NS) rings just before food (US) is presented, the dog is more likely to associate the bell with food and salivate (CR) — as opposed to the bell ringing a minute after the food has been presented.

The Theory of Contiguity was created by _____________. He suggested that _________ proximity is sufficient for learning and reinforcement is not _____________.

The Theory of Contiguity was created by Guthrie, Watson. He suggested that temporal proximity is sufficient for learning and reinforcement is not always necessary.

What is biological preparedness in conditioning?

Provide one real-life example.

Some associations are learned more easily due to evolutionary survival mechanisms.

Example:

Taste Aversion (Garcia & Koelling (1966))

• Rats avoided flavoured water after nausea 

  • Association: Taste + Illnes

• Rats didn’t associate illness w/ light or tone —> Shows that animals have a biological predisposition to associate taste w/ illness

  • Def: An organism’s inherited tendency to develop certain traits, behaviours, or conditions due to genetic and physiological factors.

Garcia & Koelling’s psychology experiment conducted in 1966 demonstrated ______________________. 

Garcia & Koelling’s psychology experiment conducted in 1966 demonstrated biological preparedness. 

According to ________ theory, conditioning involves forming __________ about the relationship between events.

According to cognitive theory, conditioning involves forming expectations about the relationship between events.

A __________ stimulus must reliably predict the ____________ stimulus for learning to occur.

A conditioned stimulus must reliably predict the unconditioned stimulus for learning to occur.

Which researcher demonstrated that predictability matters more than frequency in conditioning?

A: Robert Rescorla (1967)

What key idea did Rescorla’s 1967 study support?

A: That the reliability of the CS–UCS pairing is more important than how often it occurs.

Operant Conditioning

Type of learning in which the consequences of a behaviour determine its likelihood of being repeated.

Operant conditioned is also referred to as ___________________.

Operant conditioned is also referred to as instrumental learning.

___________ was a pioneer in psychology and was responsible for formulating the Principle of Reinforcement.

B.F. Skinner was a pioneer in psychology and was responsible for formulating the Principle of Reinforcement.

Operant conditioning states that reinforcement _________ behaviour frequency and punishment _________ behaviour frequency.

Operant conditioning states that reinforcement increases behaviour frequency and punishment decreases behaviour frequency.

Describe how operant conditioning works

• Name a consequence type

• Describe

• Example

Consequence Type	Description	Example
Positive Reinforcement	Add a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior	Get pizza party for good grades
Negative Reinforcement	Remove an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior	Take Advil to remove headache
Positive Punishment	Add an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior	Extra chores for stealing money
Negative Punishment	Remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior	Lose car privileges for breaking curfew

The Skinner Box

• What is it? 

• Significance/Purpose? 

What is it?

• AKA the “Operant Chamber”

• Controlled environment to study animal learning (e.g., rat presses lever → food pellet).

Significance 

Allows precise measurement of:

• Temporal contiguity: how quickly reinforcement follows response.

• Extinction: cessation of behaviour once reinforcement stops.

• Stimulus control: specific cues (e.g., light) indicate when behavior will be reinforced.

Another name for the “Skinner Box” is the ________________

Another name for the “Skinner Box” is the Operant Chamber

T or F: Skinner was not a behaviourist. 

False. He actually founded behaviourism,.

What is S–O–R psychology?

• Stimulus–Organism–Response

• Emphasizes how internal processes (w/in an organism) mediate between stimulus and response.

What is latent learning?

A: Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately shown in behavior.

(a) What did Tolman & Honzik’s maze experiment show? 

(b) What does this suggest about learning ?

(a) Rats in the delayed-reinforcement group suddenly improved once rewards were introduced, matching always-reinforced rats.

(b) Rats had formed a cognitive map of the maze before receiving rewards—learning was present but hidden until motivation appeared.

What are cognitive maps?

Internal representations of spatial layouts or task structures.

Why are cognitive maps important?

They show that expectations and mental representations influence learning, beyond observable behaviour.

What is observational learning?

A: Learning by watching others (models) and imitating their actions, without direct reinforcement.

Who conducted the Bobo Doll experiment in 1963?

A: Albert Bandura

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

• What was it? What happened? 

• What does this demonstrate? What is the major takeaway?

GROUP 1 (experimental group)

Kids Observation: Adults behaved aggressively behaviour towards doll

Kids Behaviour (Outcome): Imitated the aggression towards doll

GROUP 2 (control group) 

Kids Observation: Adults behaved non-aggressively towards doll

Kids Behaviour (Outcome): Showed minimal aggression towards doll

Conclusion

• Observation alone can lead to one learning new behaviours (by observing others & seeing the consequences of their actions)

• Vicarious learning: seeing others rewarded or punished affects one’s likelihood of performing the same act

  • e.g. if teacher gives detention to 2 students running in the hallways, Maria is less likely to run in the hallways

Vicarious learning is a concept that stemmed from…

Vicarious learning is a concept that stemmed from Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, particularly his Bobo Doll experiment (1963).

What did early behaviourists like Skinner believe about learning?

They denied the role of internal mental processes, focusing only on observable behaviour.

Name & describe the 4 key principles of observational learning.

1. Attention: must notice the model’s behavior.
   

2. Retention: must remember what was observed.
   

3. Reproduction: must be able to perform the behavior.
   

4. Motivation: more likely to imitate if behavior is rewarded.

Describe some applications of observational learning.

• Education: modeling positive behaviors, skills, or study habits.
  

• Media Influence: exposure to violence can increase aggression in children.
  

• Therapy: modelling used in social skills and phobia treatments.

________ is a lasting behavioural or cognitive change from experience.

Learning is a lasting behavioural or cognitive change from experience.

_____________________ shape persistence and performance of learning.

Reinforcement schedules shape persistence and performance of learning.

Match the following together:

1. Classical Conditioning

2. Operant Conditioning 

3. Cognitive & Observation Learning 

(A) Learns consequences of behaviour 

(B) Reveal that mental processes and imitation influence learning beyond direct reinforcement 

(C) Learning associations b/w events (stimuli)

1. Classical Conditioning —> C

2. Operant Conditioning —> A

3. Cognitive & Observation Learning —> B

T or F: Modern psychology integrates all three approaches/types of learning non-associative, associative, and observational/cognitive learning) to explain human and animal behaviour. 

True

Control Group

Group of experiment/study participants that do not receive the treatment or variable being studied.

Experimental Group

Group of experiment/study participants that receives the treatment or variable being tested. 

Edward Tolman was an American ____________ and the founder of the branch of psychology known as “____________”.

Edward Tolman was an American psychologist and the founder of the branch of psychology known as “behaviourism”.