PSC 126 EXAM 1

What is health psychology?

Health psychology is the study of how psychological factors influence health, illness, and healthcare.

How have the causes of mortality changed since the 1900s?

Since the 1900s, the causes of mortality have shifted from infectious diseases to non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes.

What are non-communicable diseases (NCDs)?

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are chronic diseases that are not transmissible directly from one person to another. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.

What are communicable diseases?

Communicable diseases are illnesses caused by infectious agents that can be transmitted from one person to another. Examples include influenza, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS.

What is an experiment?

An experiment is a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable, allowing for causal conclusions.

How is an experiment different from correlational research?

An experiment involves manipulation of variables and control over conditions to establish causation, while correlational research examines the relationship between variables without manipulation, thus cannot establish causation.

What is a randomized clinical trial (RCT)?

A randomized clinical trial (RCT) is a study design that randomly assigns participants to receive either the intervention being tested or a control, considered the 'gold standard' for determining the efficacy of treatments.

What is correlational research?

Correlational research is a method that assesses the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are associated, without implying causation.

What is a prospective research design?

A prospective research design follows participants over time to observe outcomes, often used to study the effects of risk factors on health.

What is a retrospective research design?

A retrospective research design looks back at existing data or records to find correlations or causes of outcomes that have already occurred.

Define morbidity.

Morbidity refers to the state of being diseased or unhealthy, often measured by the prevalence of diseases in a population.

Define mortality.

Mortality refers to the incidence of death within a population, often expressed as a rate.

What is the difference between morbidity and mortality?

Morbidity refers to health conditions or diseases, while mortality refers specifically to death rates.

Define prevalence.

Prevalence is the total number of cases of a disease in a population at a given time, expressed as a percentage or proportion.

Define incidence.

Incidence is the number of new cases of a disease that occur in a specific population during a defined time period.

What is the difference between prevalence and incidence?

Prevalence measures all existing cases of a disease at a given time, while incidence measures only new cases that arise during a specific time period.

What is quality of life?

Quality of life refers to the general well-being of individuals and societies, encompassing physical, mental, and social health.

What is epidemiology?

Epidemiology is the study of how diseases affect the health and illness of populations, focusing on patterns, causes, and effects.

What does the term 'etiology' mean?

Etiology refers to the study of the causes or origins of diseases.

Differentiate epidemiology from etiology.

Epidemiology studies the distribution and determinants of health-related states in populations, while etiology focuses specifically on the causes of diseases.

How does the APA define misinformation?

The American Psychological Association (APA) defines misinformation as false or misleading information that is spread regardless of intent to deceive.

What psychological factors make people susceptible to believe misinformation?

Factors include cognitive biases, emotional responses, social influences, and lack of critical thinking skills.

How and why does misinformation spread?

Misinformation spreads through social media, word of mouth, and traditional media, often due to emotional appeal and confirmation bias.

What are individual-level interventions to counter misinformation?

Individual-level interventions include education, critical thinking training, and promoting media literacy.

What are system-level interventions to counter misinformation?

System-level interventions involve policy changes, regulation of media platforms, and promoting accurate information dissemination.

What is debunking?

Debunking is the process of exposing the falseness or hollowness of a myth, idea, or belief.

What is prebunking?

Prebunking involves preemptively addressing misinformation before it spreads, often by providing accurate information in advance.

What is nudging?

Nudging is a behavioral science concept that involves subtly guiding choices without restricting options, often used to promote healthier behaviors.

What are the eight recommendations proposed by the APA for combatting misinformation?

The recommendations include promoting transparency, supporting media literacy, encouraging critical thinking, and fostering trust in credible sources.

How are health behaviors defined?

Health behaviors are actions individuals take that affect their health, including lifestyle choices like diet, exercise, and smoking.

What are health habits?

Health habits are automatic behaviors that are regularly performed and contribute to health, such as brushing teeth or exercising.

What are the seven positive health habits from the Alameda County Study?

The seven positive health habits include not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, regular exercise, moderate alcohol consumption, a balanced diet, regular sleep, and social engagement.

What is primary prevention?

Primary prevention aims to prevent disease before it occurs, such as vaccinations and health education.

What is secondary prevention?

Secondary prevention focuses on early detection and intervention to prevent the progression of disease, such as screenings and regular check-ups.

What is tertiary prevention?

Tertiary prevention aims to reduce the impact of an ongoing illness or injury that has lasting effects, such as rehabilitation and support groups.

What are some examples of determinants of health behaviors?

Determinants include biological factors, psychological factors, social influences, and environmental conditions.

What are educational appeals?

Educational appeals are strategies that provide information to encourage behavior change through knowledge and understanding.

What are fear appeals?

Fear appeals are persuasive messages that evoke fear to motivate individuals to change their behavior.

What is the health belief model?

The health belief model is a psychological model that explains and predicts health behaviors by focusing on individuals' beliefs about health conditions.

What is self-determination theory?

Self-determination theory is a theory of motivation that emphasizes the role of intrinsic motivation and the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

What is autonomous motivation?

Autonomous motivation refers to engaging in an activity out of personal interest or value rather than external pressure.

What is perceived competence?

Perceived competence is an individual's belief in their ability to perform a task successfully.

What are cognitive-behavioral approaches to behavior change?

Cognitive-behavioral approaches focus on changing maladaptive thoughts and behaviors through techniques like cognitive restructuring and self-control.

What is self-reinforcement?

Self-reinforcement is a process where individuals reward themselves for achieving specific goals or behaviors.

What is positive self-reward?

Positive self-reward involves giving oneself a reward for achieving a desired behavior or goal.

What is negative self-reward?

Negative self-reward involves removing an unpleasant stimulus as a reward for achieving a desired behavior.

What is positive self-punishment?

Positive self-punishment involves applying an unpleasant consequence after failing to achieve a desired behavior.

What is negative self-punishment?

Negative self-punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus after failing to achieve a desired behavior.

What is motivational interviewing?

Motivational interviewing is a counseling approach that helps individuals find their own motivation to change by exploring and resolving ambivalence.

How can relapse be prevented?

Relapse can be prevented through strategies such as developing coping skills, creating a supportive environment, and setting realistic goals.

What is the abstinence violation effect?

The abstinence violation effect is the feeling of failure and loss of control that occurs when individuals relapse after attempting to abstain from a behavior.

What are the main stages of the transtheoretical model of behavior change?

The main stages are precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance.

What is social engineering?

Social engineering refers to strategies designed to influence behavior on a societal level, often through policy changes or community programs.

What are some examples of social engineering?

Examples include implementing taxes on sugary drinks, creating smoke-free zones, and promoting public health campaigns.

What are the health benefits of regular exercise?

Regular exercise improves cardiovascular health, strengthens muscles, enhances mental health, and reduces the risk of chronic diseases.

What are the effects of exercise on psychological well-being?

Exercise can reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety, improve mood, and enhance overall mental health.

What is the minimum exercise prescription for adults?

The minimum exercise prescription for adults is at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity per week.

What is the effectiveness of wearable activity trackers?

Wearable activity trackers can increase physical activity levels by providing feedback and promoting accountability.

What are the pros and cons of recommending mammography?

Pros include early detection of breast cancer, while cons may involve false positives and unnecessary anxiety.

What is the primary risk factor for skin cancer?

The primary risk factor for skin cancer is excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun or tanning beds.

What are sun safety practices?

Sun safety practices include wearing sunscreen, protective clothing, and seeking shade to reduce UV exposure.

What are links between stress and changes in diet?

Stress can lead to unhealthy eating behaviors, such as overeating or consuming high-calorie comfort foods.

What are some common interventions to change diet?

Common interventions include nutritional education, meal planning, and behavioral strategies to promote healthier food choices.

What are the primary theories for why we sleep?

Primary theories include the restorative theory, which suggests sleep restores energy and repair, and the evolutionary theory, which posits sleep enhances survival.

What are the effects of lack of sleep on health?

Lack of sleep can lead to impaired cognitive function, increased risk of chronic diseases, and negative impacts on mental health.

How does the amount of sleep needed per night change across the lifespan?

Sleep needs vary by age, with infants requiring more sleep than adults, and older adults often needing less sleep than younger adults.

Describe strategies for a good night's sleep.

Strategies include maintaining a consistent sleep schedule, creating a comfortable sleep environment, limiting exposure to screens before bed, avoiding caffeine and heavy meals in the evening, and engaging in relaxation techniques.

What are alcohol dependence statistics?

Alcohol dependence statistics indicate that a significant percentage of the population struggles with alcohol use disorders, with varying rates of dependence based on demographics and other factors.

What are the mortality statistics related to alcohol dependence?

Mortality statistics show that alcohol dependence is associated with higher rates of premature death, often due to health complications such as liver disease, accidents, and other alcohol-related issues.

What are the costs to society from alcohol dependence?

Costs to society include healthcare expenses, lost productivity, law enforcement costs, and social services related to alcohol-related incidents.

What is substance dependence?

Substance dependence is a condition characterized by a compulsive pattern of substance use, leading to significant impairment or distress.

Can you differentiate problem drinking from alcoholism?

Problem drinking refers to a pattern of alcohol use that leads to negative consequences, while alcoholism (or alcohol use disorder) is a more severe condition involving physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms.

What is the connection between alcohol consumption and stress?

Alcohol consumption is often used as a coping mechanism for stress, but it can lead to increased stress levels and dependency over time.

What are some treatment programs for alcoholism?

Treatment programs for alcoholism include behavioral therapies, support groups like Alcoholics Anonymous, medication-assisted treatment, and inpatient rehabilitation.

How often do people with alcoholism experience relapse?

Relapse rates for individuals with alcoholism can be as high as 40-60%, indicating the chronic nature of the disorder.

Is mild alcohol consumption beneficial for health?

The debate on mild alcohol consumption suggests potential benefits, such as reduced risk of heart disease, but also highlights risks, leading to controversy over recommendations.

What are some chronic diseases associated with smoking cigarettes?

Chronic diseases associated with smoking include lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), heart disease, and stroke.

What is the role of pro-smoking media in encouraging smoking?

Pro-smoking media can normalize smoking behavior, glamorize tobacco use, and influence young people to start smoking.

Define the 'synergistic' effects of smoking.

The 'synergistic' effects of smoking refer to the compounded health risks that arise when smoking interacts with other risk factors, such as poor diet or lack of exercise.

What are some examples of successful interventions to reduce smoking?

Successful interventions include public smoking bans, increased tobacco taxes, educational campaigns, and smoking cessation programs.

What is the effectiveness of social influence programs to prevent smoking in adolescents?

Social influence programs have been shown to be effective in reducing smoking initiation among adolescents by altering social norms and peer influences.

How is obesity defined?

Obesity is defined as having an excessive amount of body fat, typically measured by a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.

What are the prevalence rates of overweight and obesity in the United States?

The prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States is significant, with over 70% of adults classified as overweight or obese.

What are some biological/health outcomes correlated with obesity?

Health outcomes correlated with obesity include type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, and joint problems.

What is weight stigma?

Weight stigma is the negative attitudes and beliefs about individuals based on their weight, which can contribute to further weight gain and mental health issues.

What is an obesogenic environment?

An obesogenic environment is one that promotes weight gain through factors such as easy access to high-calorie foods, lack of physical activity opportunities, and social norms favoring sedentary behavior.

What does research show about the effectiveness of dieting?

Research indicates that dieting often leads to short-term weight loss but can result in long-term weight gain, a phenomenon known as yo-yo dieting.

What is the set point theory of weight?

The set point theory suggests that each individual has a predetermined weight range that their body strives to maintain through metabolic and hormonal adjustments.

Define leptin and ghrelin.

Leptin is a hormone that signals satiety and helps regulate energy balance, while ghrelin is a hormone that stimulates hunger.

What are the causes of obesity during childhood?

Causes of obesity in childhood include genetic factors, unhealthy eating habits, lack of physical activity, and environmental influences.

What are preventative measures for obesity?

Preventative measures for obesity include promoting healthy eating, encouraging physical activity, and creating supportive environments for healthy lifestyle choices.

Anorexia vs. bulimia - what are the distinguishing symptoms?

Anorexia is characterized by extreme restriction of food intake and fear of weight gain, while bulimia involves cycles of binge eating followed by purging behaviors.

What is the U.S. government's recommendation for the composition of a healthy meal?

The U.S. government recommends a balanced meal that includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy.

What are the definitions of stress and stressor?

Stress is a psychological and physical response to perceived challenges or threats, while a stressor is any event or condition that triggers this response.

Define primary versus secondary appraisal of stressors.

Primary appraisal involves evaluating whether a stressor is a threat, while secondary appraisal assesses the resources available to cope with that stressor.

What is the fight-or-flight response?

The fight-or-flight response is a physiological reaction to perceived danger, activating the sympathetic nervous system and preparing the body to either confront or flee from the threat.

What is the General Adaptation Syndrome?

The General Adaptation Syndrome is a three-stage model of stress response: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Describe Taylor's 'tend-and-befriend' theory.

Taylor's 'tend-and-befriend' theory suggests that, especially in females, stress responses may involve nurturing behaviors and seeking social support rather than just fight-or-flight.

What is the function of the HPA axis?

The HPA axis regulates the body's response to stress by releasing hormones such as cortisol from the adrenal glands.

What does the normal diurnal cortisol rhythm look like?

The normal diurnal cortisol rhythm shows higher levels of cortisol in the morning, gradually decreasing throughout the day.