PO chapter 3

container terminal operations

containerisation is the method of:

transporting goods using large, standardised containers that can move easily between ships, trucks, and trains without having to unload and reload the contents

benefits of containerisation:

1) optimised space utilisation

standard container dimensions allow for goods to be packed tightly and uniformly, reducing empty space and maximising capacity on vessels, trucks, and trains

benefits of containerisation:

2) reduced labour dependence

limits the need for manual handling → lowers labour costs, increases productivity, and improves workplace safety during cargo operations

benefits of containerisation:

3) enhanced intermodal flexibility

containers can be transferred easily between sea, rail, and road transport without unpacking → reduces transit times and increases routing options

benefits of containerisation:

4) improved inventory control

consistent handling and transit speed support better inventory forecasting → enables leaner stock levels and facilitates just-in-time supply chain strategies

benefits of containerisation:

5) standardised operational efficiency

uniform container sizes and handling equipment simplify port and terminal operations → faster vessel turnaround, less congestion, and smoother coordination across international trade routes

container terminal layout:

1) Berth area (quay) (3)

• The waterfront section where container ships dock for loading and unloading

• Equipped with ship-to-shore (STS) gantry cranes that lift containers on and off vessels

• Has multiple berths to accommodate different ship sizes

container terminal layout:

2) wharf apron area (2)

• The immediate space behind the quay where containers are temporarily staged after unloading

• Trucks and terminal tractors move containers between the berth and the stacking yard

container terminal layout:

3) container yard (stacking area) (3)

• The largest section of the terminal where containers are temporarily stored before further transportation

• Containers are stacked in rows, managed using rubber-tired gantry (RTG) cranes and rail-mounted gantry (RMG) cranes

• Divided into sections for import, export, and transshipment containers

container terminal layout:

4) port gate

Entry and exit points where trucks check in and out, with security screening and documentation processing

container terminal layout:

5) customs and inspection area (2)

• A designated area for customs clearance, security checks, and cargo inspections

• Includes scanning stations, customs offices, and examination warehouses

container terminal layout:

6) terminal operations and administration building

• Houses administrative office, control centre, offices for resource coordination, security operations, etc

• Equipped with digital systems for real-time tracking of containers

• Workshop for equipment maintenance team

container handling equipment:

1) quay crane is:

a large, rail-mounted crane used at the berth of a container terminal to load and unload containers between the ship and the terminal

container handling equipment:

1) quay cranes → characteristics (3)

• outreach → helps with large vessels

• lifting weight

• lifting capacity

container handling equipment:

1) quay cranes → key features (3)

• Placed on rails along at the quay (wharf)

• Used to transfer container from ship to shore, and vice versa

• Crane Operator seated in the control cabin on the crane itself and is usually assisted by a Wharf Supervisor to supervise safe and efficient work

container handling equipment:

2) spreader is:

the part of the crane or lifting equipment that attaches directly to the container to ensure a secure and stable lift

container handling equipment:

2) spreader → types of spreaders (3)

• telescopic → lifts 20, 40, sometimes 45-ft containers

• twin-lift → can lift two 20-foot containers simultaneously

• tandem quadlift → lifts 4×20-ft or 2×40/45-ft containers simultaneously

container handling equipment:

2) spreader → handling overheight/overwidth/OOG cargo (3)

To handle such unique cargo, the terminals may use:

1. Overheight frames or beam extensions attached to standard spreaders

2. Lashing equipment or slings to stabilise the load

3. Adjustable spreaders that can lift cargo from reinforced frames or special container bases

container handling equipment:

2) spreader → key features (3)

• The spreader locks onto the corner castings of the container using twistlocks

• It is suspended from the trolley of a quay crane, yard crane, or other container handling equipment

• The design ensures containers are lifted safely, evenly, and without tilting or swaying

container handling equipment:

3) Mobile Harbour Crane (MHC) is: (2)

• used for lifting containers and various types of cargo at ports and terminals

• self-propelled and can be moved easily to different berths or operational areas within the terminal

container handling equipment:

3) Mobile Harbour Crane (MHC) → key features (5)

• Mounted on rubber tyres, allowing mobility across the quay/yard

• Operated from an enclosed cabin with full visibility of the lifting zone

• Equipped with a trolley and spreader for container handling

• Capable of lifting containers, general cargo, and even bulk cargo with the right attachments

• Can be used for both ship-side and yard-side operations

container handling equipment:

4) ship crane is:

• a type of lifting equipment that is permanently installed onboard a vessel

• commonly used on geared vessels

container handling equipment:

4) ship crane limitations:

slower and less efficient compared to shore-based cranes

container handling equipment:

4) ship crane → key features (3)

• Located on the deck of the vessel, typically between cargo holds

• Operated either by the vessel’s crew or shore gang

• Equipped with a spreader or hook for lifting containers and general cargo

container handling equipment:

5) floating crane is:

a specialised vessel equipped with a large crane, designed to carry out heavy lifting operations at sea

container handling equipment:

5) floating crane → key features (6)

• Mounted on a floating barge or vessel, can operate away from fixed port infrastructure

• Designed for heavy lifting tasks, beyond quay crane capacity

• Can be self-propelled or require tug-assisted

• Ideal for use in deep water or anchorages without fixed cranes

• Used for oversized, awkward, or high-risk cargo

• Equipped with specialised lifting gear to handle diverse cargo requirements

container handling equipment:

6) yard cranes:

lift, stack, and retrieve containers

container handling equipment:

7) reach stacker is: (2)

• a type of mobile container-handling equipment that can lift and move containers quickly and flexibly around the yard

• has a telescopic boom that can reach across multiple container rows

container handling equipment:

8) empty stacker is:

• a type of forklift specially designed to lift and stack empty containers

container handling equipment:

9) straddle carriers:

• picks up containers by straddling over them and lifting them from the top and carrying them directly to their destination

container handling equipment:

9) straddle carriers → key features (7)

• Straddles containers, lifting them using a top-mounted spreader

• Can carry and stack containers in the yard

• Moves containers from the wharfside to the stacking yard without a prime mover

• Enables direct vertical stacking

• Offers independent movement, reducing traffic congestion from trailers

• Commonly used in terminals with automated operations or high container turnover

• Capable of handling both laden and empty containers

container handling equipment:

10) trucks and trailers → function: (2)

trucks → transport containers within or outside the terminal

trailers → used to hold and transport containers

container handling equipment:

10) trucks → terminal trucks (prime movers):

• Operate only within the port

• Designed for short-distance, quick movements

• Highly manoeuvrable and do not require road licence plates

container handling equipment:

10) trucks → road/haulier trucks

• Used for long-distance transport outside the port

• Roadworthy and comply with traffic and regulatory standards

• Often deliver containers to customer premises or logistics hubs

container handling equipment:

10) trailers

• Pulled by either terminal or road trucks

• Detachable, allowing one truck to service multiple containers

• Come in various designs depending on container type

container handling equipment:

11) forklift is:

mainly used for handling empty containers, small cargo units, or for recovery and emergency operations when larger equipment is unavailable or impractical

container handling equipment:

11) forklift → key features (6)

• Primarily used for handling empty containers/light cargo

• Fitted with fork arms or container-handling attachments

• Operated by a single driver

• Useful in areas with limited space

• Important in accident recovery operations or manual repositioning tasks

• Lower Safe Working Load (SWL) compared to reach stackers or gantry cranes

container movements within the terminal:

1) import → movement flow (6)

Step:

1) arrival at port

2) discharge by quay crane

3) transport to container yard

4) stacking by yard crane

5) pickup by haulier truck

6) exit and delivery

container movements within the terminal:

2) export → movement flow (5)

Step:

1) container stuffing at shipper premises

2) arrival at port via haulier truck

3) offloading by yard crane

4) transport to wharfside

5) loading by quay crane

stacking refers to:

stacking containers

container movements within the terminal:

3) transshipment is when:

some containers make a temporary stop at the port before continuing their journey

container movements within the terminal:

3) transshipment → movement flow (6)

Step:

1) arrival on first vessel

2) discharge by quay crane

3) transfer to yard

4) preparation for loading onto second vessel

5) delivery to wharf by prime mover

6) loading by quay crane

wharf is:

the place where ships berth to load and unload cargo.

container movements within the terminal:

3) transshipment → conditions for successful transshipment (4)

Step:

1) arrival sequence of vessels

→ 1st vessel must arrive before 2nd vessel

2) full discharge of transshipment containers before loading begins

→ avoid confusion/delays

3) correct port rotation and calling

→ 2nd vessel must be calling at the intended final destination of the transshipment container or container may be misrouted

4) space availability on 2nd vessel

→ must have sufficient space to take on all the transshipment containers

container movements within the terminal:

3) transshipment → benefits (3)

1) cost efficiency

→ by consolidating cargo at hub ports, shipping lines can operate fewer, larger vessels which lowers fuel, crew, and port costs

2) expanded service coverage

→ allows shipping lines to serve a wider range of destinations, including smaller or less-frequented ports

3) increased sailing frequency

→ enables more frequent departures on key trade lanes by allowing shipping lines to pool vessel resources and coordinate schedules

container movements within the terminal:

3) hub-and-spoke (definition)

involves moving containers between feeder vessels and larger mainline vessels through a central hub port

container movements within the terminal:

3) hub-and-spoke (how it works)

Smaller feeder vessels distribute cargo from the hub to regional or smaller ports that the mainline vessels do not serve directly

container movements within the terminal:

3) hub-and-spoke (key characteristics) (3)

• Centralised structure

• Higher frequency of feeder services

• Efficient for covering wide geographic areas

container movements within the terminal:

3) hub-and-spoke (benefits) (3)

• Maximises economies of scale for mainline vessels

• Reduces port calls for large vessels

• Improves network coverage

economies of scale refer to:

the cost advantages gained by producing a larger quantity of goods

container movements within the terminal:

3) cross-strings (definiton)

Containers are transhipped between two mainline services at a hub port, often involving east–west and north–south or intra-Asia trades

container movements within the terminal:

3) cross-strings (how it works) (2)

• transferred directly to another mainline vessel on a different service string

• there is no feeder vessel involved

container movements within the terminal:

3) cross-strings (key characteristics) (2)

• Lateral movement between strings

• Occurs at major transshipment hubs where multiple mainline services intersect

container movements within the terminal:

3) cross-strings (benefits)

• Enables flexible routing between distant markets

• Useful for inter-alliance transfers or non-direct service links

difference between central hub port and hub port (2)

central hub port → focuses on maximizing transshipment efficiency and capacity

hub port → serves as a major shipping and distribution point for cargo without necessarily prioritizing transshipment

factors leading to SG’s success in transshipment volume: (4)

1) strategic location

→ Positioned at the crossroads of major East–West shipping lanes

2) excellent connectivity

→ Facilitates both hub-and-spoke and cross-string transshipment models

3) operational efficiency

→ automated quay cranes, remote operations, real-time scheduling systems (PSA SG)

4) competitive transshipment costs

→ SG’s efficiency minimises these costs

key activities in container terminal operations:

1) berth planning (2)

• Allocates vessels to specific berths upon arrival

• Aims to minimise vessel waiting time and ensure efficient berth use

key activities in container terminal operations:

2) ground opreations (3)

• Manages container discharge and loading at the quay

• Supervises container movements between quay and yard

• Oversees the work of stevedores, prime movers, and quay cranes

key activities in container terminal operations:

3) resource allocation (2)

• Ensures effective deployment of equipment such as yard cranes, trucks, and spreaders

• Balances resources across various activities and zones

key activities in container terminal operations:

4) ship stowage planning (2)

• Plans how containers are loaded onto the vessel

• Considers weight distribution, cargo destination, container type, and special requirements

key activities in container terminal operations:

5) container yard planning (2)

• Assigns storage locations in the yard for import, export, and transshipment containers

• Aligns with ship stowage plans to reduce re-handling

key activities in container terminal operations:

6) port gate management (2)

• Manages haulier truck traffic entering and exiting the port

• Ensures swift turnaround to avoid yard congestion

key activities in container terminal operations:

7) control centre operations (2)

• Acts as the command hub for the terminal

• Monitors real-time activity, resolves issues, and coordinates across all departments

bay row tier container address system

1) bay (4)

• Each container vessel is split into compartments called bays, which are given a 2-digit number

• Bay number starts from Bay 01 from the bow (front of the ship) and increases to the stern (back of the ship) depending on the size of the vessel

• Odd numbers (e.g. 01, 03, 05) = 20-ft container bays

• Even numbers (e.g. 02, 04, 06) = 40-ft container bays

bay row tier container address system

2) row (4)

• Indicates container position across the width of the ship

• Centreline of the ship is Row 00 (if present)

• Even numbers go to the port side (left)

• Odd numbers go to the starboard side (right)

bay row tier container address system

3) tier (4)

• Refers to the vertical stacking level

• Below deck, tiers are numbered starting from 02 upward

• Above deck, tiers start at 82 and increase upwards

• Helps identify how high a container is stacked

bay/stowage plan is: (2)

• a detailed diagram showing the exact location of every container onboard a vessel

• organised using the Bay-Row-Tier address system

bay plan: each section of vessel is visualised with: (3)

1) Container positions (by Bay, Row, and Tier)

2) Port of Discharge (POD) indicated, often by colour

3) Container types

key aspects of safe stowage:

1) vertical weight distribution

Proper stacking of heavier containers at the bottom and lighter ones on top to lower the centre of gravity and maintain vessel stability

key aspects of safe stowage:

2) lateral weight distribution

Equal distribution of cargo across vessel to avoid vessel stress affecting structural integrity

key aspects of safe stowage:

3) container weight limitations

To prevent structural collapse of containers during sea transit/yard storage

key aspects of safe stowage:

4) stack weight and stack load limitations

Ensure container stacks do not exceed weight limits to prevent collapsing

key aspects of safe stowage:

5) stack height limitations

Ensure container stacks do not exceed stack height limits to prevent toppling / collapsing

key aspects of safe stowage:

6) securing mechanisms (2)

• Prevent movement of container onboard ships due to waves, wind, and ship motion

• Equipment used include twist locks, lashing rods, turnbuckles, stacking cones, cell guides

key aspects of safe stowage:

7) load planning (3)

1) Space available onboard for various container sizes as certain vessels have dedicated 20-ft / 40-ft bays that cannot be interchanged

2) Special stowage requirements for different types of container & cargo needs (e.g. OOG needs extra space)

3) Port Rotation- Prevent overstow to avoid paying container re-handling charges

key aspects of safe stowage:

8) container inspection

detects damages or risks before loading

crane cycle refers to:

the complete movement of a crane spreader while transferring a container

crane cycle includes (2):

discharge: ship > wharf > ship

load: wharf > ship > wharf (load)

cycle timing and performance (2)

• The speed at which a crane completes cycles is known as crane productivity

• It is typically measured in moves per hour

primary crane productivity rate (moves/hour) =

total no. of container moves by primary crane / duration of operations (hour)

vessel gross moves per hour (GMPH):

1) based on no. of containers

GMPH = total no. of container moves by all cranes / total duration of vessel operations (hours)

vessel gross moves per hour (GMPH):

2) based on TEUs

GMPH = total no. of TEUs handled / total duration of vessel operations (hours)

measuring the productivity rate of the primary crane important for terminal operations as:

to estimate how long the vessel will remain at berth