Skill in Sport
A learned and adaptable ability to carry out a task effectively.
It involves the coordination of various physical and cognitive elements to achieve a desired outcome.
Developed through practice, experience, and the refinement of motor patterns, making them more automatic and efficient over time.
Fine Motor Skills: Involve precise movements, often associated with small muscle groups (e.g., writing, drawing).
Gross Motor Skills: Encompass larger, more general movements that engage larger muscle groups (e.g., running, jumping).
Decision-Making: The ability to choose the most appropriate action from various alternatives.
Problem-Solving: The capacity to find solutions to challenges or obstacles.
Using senses to assess a situation and help you make decisions (vision, hearing, touch)
Gross Motor Skills: Movements that involve large muscle groups such as arms and legs.
Example: walking, jumping, running, and kicking
Fine Motor Skills: Involve much smaller muscle groups and often require high levels of hand eye coordination.
Example: playing the piano, playing darts, and catching a ball
Open skills are those that are significantly affected by the environmental conditions.
The environment is largely variable and unpredictable and the performer has to adapt their movements accordingly.
Example: jumping for a rebound in basketball
Closed skills are skills that are performed in a more stable and predictable environment and can be internally paced by the performer.
Closed skills follow set movement patterns and are performed in the same way each time.
Example: Archery
Discrete skills: Have a clear start and finish.
Brief and well defined (obvious when it starts and stops)
Example: forward roll gymnastics, golf swing, and penalty stroke (hockey).
Serial skills: Involve linking together skills to form a longer, more together complex movement.
Example: series of flips and somersaults, triple jump (hop, skip, jump)
Continuous skills: Are where the end of one cycle of movement is the beginning of the next.
They are repetitive and rhythmical and take place over a long period of time.
A distance, a target or a set time usually governs the time that the skill is performed for.
Example: swimming, running, and cycling
Externally Paced Skills: The environment, which may include opponents, controls the rate of performing the skill.
The performer must pay attention to external events in order to control his/her rate of movement.
These skills involve reaction, and are usually open skills.
Example: in ball games the performer must time his actions with the actions of other players and the ball.
Internally Paced Skills: The performer controls the rate at which the skill is executed.
These skills are usually closed skills.
Example: javelin throw, discus.
Individual Skills are those skills that are performed in isolation from others.
Only one performer is involved at a particular time.
Ex: archery and the high jump
Coactive Skills are those skills that are performed with someone else, but with no direct confrontation.
Ex: Swimming and track events
Interactive Skills are where other performers are directly involved and can involve confrontation.
This is because there is an active opposition and this directly influences the skill.
Ex: rugby, water polo, and soccer
Skills: Agility, ball control, endurance.
Physical Attributes: Cardiovascular fitness, speed, and coordination.
Skills: Strength, explosive power, technique.
Physical Attributes: Muscular strength, flexibility, and body composition.
Ability is an individual's inherent, enduring capacity to perform various tasks or acquire specific skills.
Categorization: Abilities can be cognitive (e.g., memory, problem-solving), psychomotor (e.g., coordination, reaction time), or physical (e.g., strength, endurance).
Physical Proficiency Abilities
Examples: Endurance, strength, flexibility.
Role: Primarily related to bodily functions and physical attributes.
Perceptual-Motor Abilities
Examples: Coordination, reaction time, spatial orientation.
Role: Involves the integration of sensory and motor functions.
Technique refers to the specific method or approach used to perform a skill.
Emphasis: Technique emphasizes precision, efficiency, and proper execution of movements.
Abilities: Form the foundation for skill acquisition.
Skills: Represent the learned behaviors and actions developed through practice.
Technique: Involves the application of skills in a particular context, focusing on the quality and efficiency of execution.
Skill Acquisition: Skilled performers have typically undergone extensive practice, refining their abilities and skills over time, while novices are still in the early stages of learning and may lack refined motor patterns.
Efficiency: Skilled performers execute tasks with greater efficiency, using less energy and demonstrating more precise movements compared to novices.
Decision Making: Skilled individuals make quicker and more accurate decisions based on their experience and pattern recognition, whereas novices may need more time to analyze situations and make choices.
Consistency: Skilled performers demonstrate greater consistency in their performance, with fewer errors and variations compared to novices who may exhibit more inconsistency.
Adaptability: Skilled individuals can adapt to changing conditions more effectively, adjusting their techniques and strategies as needed, whereas novices may struggle with flexibility and may be more rigid in their approach.
Sensation and Perception
The information processing model begins with sensation and perception.
Sensation is the capacity to have a physical feeling or perception by receiving information from environmental stimuli through our senses.
Perception is becoming aware of, organizing, and interpreting this information so that it makes sense to us.
Memory
The second part of the information processing model is memory.
Once information is gathered from the environment, it must be stored in memory so that it can be accessed and used later.
Memory is essential for learning and understanding new information, and there's a lot we still don't understand about it.
Cognition
Cognition is the third part of the information processing model.
It refers to how we process information in our minds.
Our cognitive abilities include simple mental processes (like sensation and perception) and more complex mental processes.
These processes allow us to make sense of the information we receive from the world around us.
Sensory Input: The sensory information relevant to the situation is stored in short-term memory.
The information is taken in through the senses before a decision is made in three ways.
These are; what we see (vision) what we hear (auditory) what we sense (proprioception).
Exteroceptors: These are receptors located in the skin and mucous membranes that detect external stimuli such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Proprioceptors: These receptors are found in muscles, tendons, and joints, and they provide information about the position and movement of body parts.
Interoceptors: These receptors are located in internal organs and provide information about internal conditions such as hunger, thirst, and pain.
Short and Long-Term Memory: All information gathered from the various sensory inputs is stored for a split second in the short-term memory before processing.
It is suggested that short-term memory can only hold up to seven pieces of information and retain for less than a minute.
Long-term memory, which appears to have a limitless capacity, contains information about past experiences.
Decision Process: The decision process occurs by comparing the current situation, held in the short-term memory, with previous experiences, held in long-term memory, to determine appropriate action.
Action: The action is performed regarding the movement pattern stored in long-term memory.
Once the action is completed, the situation and result are stored in long-term memory for future reference.
Effector control refers to the regulation of movements by the nervous system. Welford's Model emphasizes the role of feedback in controlling motor actions.
Feedback is information received after executing a movement that allows for adjustments to be made. This model suggests that feedback is crucial for achieving accurate and efficient motor control.
Signal detection involves distinguishing between meaningful signals and background noise.
It includes the processes of sensitivity and decision-making, influenced by factors like experience and motivation.
Early signal detection refers to the ability to detect a signal within noise.
Signal Detection Theory explores how individuals make decisions about the presence or absence of a signal in the presence of uncertainty or noise.
Improving signal detection involves enhancing sensitivity to signals and reducing response bias.
Short-Term Sensory Store (STSS): Brief storage of sensory information (e.g., iconic memory for visual stimuli).
Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity storage for information actively being processed.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent storage with a vast capacity for information and experiences.
Memory Definition (Tulving, 1985): Memory is the capacity that allows organisms to benefit from past experiences. It involves storing previous occurrences in long-term memory for retrieval in future experiences.
Selective Attention (Welford, 1968; Wickens, 1980): Selective attention is the ability to focus on one thing at a time or on multiple things that require different areas of the brain. It involves prioritizing relevant information while ignoring distractions.
Role in Competitive Sports
In competitive sports, memory is crucial for recalling and retrieving knowledge from long-term memory to inform current performance. Selective attention is essential for focusing only on relevant memories and information needed for the task at hand, filtering out distractions.
Application in Performance
In a sporting context, selective memory allows athletes to recall relevant training and skills while filtering out irrelevant information. For example, during a game, an athlete may remember various training drills and strategies, but selectively focus on the specific movements and decisions required in the current situation.
Example
In a touch game, a player performing an attacking line move may recall various training sessions and drills related to that move. With the aid of selective attention, they focus only on the specific aspects relevant to their current position, situation, and the movements of their teammates and opponents. This selective focus enhances decision-making and performance during the game.
Rehearsal: the more a memory is rehearsed, the more likely it is that it will be remembered.
Coding: crucial first step to creating a new memory. It allows the received item of interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored and then recalled later from short-term or long-term memory.
Brevity: the quicker a process is learned, the more likely it is to be remembered.
Clarity: initially you don’t always know what to respond to; the coach/teacher can begin with a simple approach and build on the information; help you focus.
Chunking: pieces of information are grouped together then remembered as one piece of information.
Organization: involve structuring information in meaningful ways, such as categorization or creating mnemonic devices.
Association practice: involves linking new information with existing knowledge to facilitate encoding and retrieval.
Response Time = Reaction Time + Movement Time
the time from the introduction of a stimulus to the completion of the action required to deal with the situation.
Reaction time: time elapsed for the onset of a stimulus to the start of the response.
Movement time: time it takes to carry out the motor aspect of the performance.
Response time is ability, having individual and group variance (for example, gender and age).
Includes stimulus transmission, detection, recognition, decision to respond, nerve transmission time and initiation of action.
Gets faster during childhood/adolescence
Gets slower as we get older
Movement time depends on fitness
Number of choices to be made
Males have quicker reactions than female, but the reaction times of females deteriorate less quickly than males
Hick’s Law: Hick (1952) found that as you double the number of stimulus-response couplings there is a linear increase in response time.
The period of time during which the response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed.
The processing of stimulus 2 cannot take place until processing of stimulus 1 is complete.
S1: player 1 plays a forehand drive towards player 2’s forehand
R1: player 2 prepared to return with a forehand drive
S2: ball hits net, slow and changed direction
R2: player 2 must change shot selection from forehand to backhand
S1: player 1 shapes to pass the ball
R1: player 2 follows the direction of the intended pass
S2: the ball has not been passed
R2: player 2 must focus attention back on the ball carrier (player 1)
Defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory regardless of whether feedback is used in their execution.
A PLAN of the whole skill or pattern of movement
Catching a ball in basketball
Hitting a ball in tennis
A whole plan (executive program/motor program) and subroutines
Executive: a number of motor programs put together (gymnastics routine)
Subroutine: building block of a motor program; “mini skills” (kicking, catching, throwing, dribbling)
Executive programs can only be executed successfully by training and focusing on subroutines
Coordination of subroutines
When a specific action is required, the memory process retrieves the stored programme and transmits the motor commands via nerve impulses to the relevant muscles allowing movement to occur.
This is known as ‘executive motor programme.
This programme is recalled when needed.
If this skill is learned then the reaction time to produce the skill is very short.
When the performer becomes more skilled than the motor programme, it is taken away and superseded by a new programme.
Open loops – performance of a skill without recourse to feedback.
hitting (or attempting to hit) a 100mph fastball or a 140mph tennis serve
(no alteration of movement possible – since the stimuli is too fast for feedback/adjustments to occur)
Closed loops – involves the process of feedback.
not all movements take place so quickly – many can be altered during their execution
Control is internal (proprioceptors detect and correct errors)
Perceptual trace - memory for the feel of successful past experience/movements
(slower pitch reaction, slower serves, deflected or redirected balls)
Memory trace refers to the physical or chemical changes in the brain associated with memory storage.
Feedback – describes information resulting from an action or response.
Concurrent feedback is received during the execution of a task, while terminal feedback is provided after the task is completed.
Intrinsic feedback – available to a performer/athlete without outside help.
Extrinsic feedback – is provided by someone (coach/teacher) or something else (stopwatch, game clock, tape measure).
Knowledge of Result - is a post response information concerning the outcome of the action (visual).
Knowledge of Performance - consists of post-response information concerning the nature of the movement (feel).
Positive: telling someone they did well; or prescriptive feedback (telling the learner how to improve)
Negative: concentrates on errors; “you’re wrong”; demotivation and of little use to beginners (they need prescriptive feedback)
Know the difference between Knowledge of results (KR) vs. Knowledge of Performance (KP)
The most obvious form of KR is visual (self recognized or w/assistance)
The most obvious form of KP is the “feel” of the movement (i.e recognition of the sensory consequences)
It can be concurrent or;
Terminal feedback via a coach or video review.
Feedback can also be positive or negative.
Motivation: we all like praise from those we perceive as being important.
Failure of coaches giving praise can result in loss of self-confidence in the players.
Too much praise can have a negative effect in that the words end up meaning nothing or they learner will begin not to perceive them at all.
Adaptation of Performance: prescriptive feedback (performer need to be told what to do in order to improve performance)
Punishment: focuses on reducing an unwanted behavior but does not teach a replacement for it
Learning refers to the relatively permanent change in behavior or capability that results from practice or experience.
It involves the acquisition of knowledge or skills that can be retained over time.
It is a process that occurs over an extended period, and it often involves the internalization of information or the development of new abilities.
This internalization is not always immediately observable and may not manifest in performance until later stages.
Performance, on the other hand, is the actual execution of a skill during a specific instance or task.
It is the observable behavior or action that occurs in real-time.
It can be influenced by various factors such as motivation, fatigue, stress, or external conditions.
Unlike learning, performance may not necessarily lead to permanent changes.
A person can perform a skill without necessarily having learned it in the long term.
Focus: In this initial phase, learners are primarily focused on understanding the task and the requirements involved.
Mental Model Formation: Learners form a mental representation or model of the task.
This involves grasping the fundamental concepts, rules, and strategies.
Trial and Error: Individuals may rely on trial-and-error to discover what works and what doesn't.
High Cognitive Load: Cognitive resources are heavily engaged, and the learning process may feel challenging and effortful.
Feedback: Learners often benefit from explicit instruction and feedback during this phase.
Example:
Imagine someone learning to ride a bicycle for the first time.
In the cognitive phase, they grasp the basic concepts of balance, steering, and pedaling.
They form a mental model of how these elements work together.
Refinement of Movements: Learners start to refine their movements based on feedback received during the cognitive phase.
They work on minimizing errors and improving the efficiency of their actions.
Practice and Repetition: This phase involves extensive practice. Learners engage in repetitive activities to solidify their understanding and enhance skill execution.
Decreased Cognitive Load: As skills become more familiar, cognitive load decreases. Movements become smoother and more automatic.
Error Detection and Correction: Errors are still present, but learners become more adept at detecting and correcting them independently.
Example:
Continuing with the bicycle example, in the associative phase, the learner practices riding regularly.
They focus on refining their balance, pedaling technique, and steering.
Feedback from each ride helps them make adjustments and improve their efficiency.
Automation of Skills: In the autonomous phase, skills become automated, requiring minimal conscious thought for execution.
Fluency: Movements are executed with fluency and precision. The learner can perform the task with less effort and attention.
Implicit Knowledge: Knowledge of the task becomes implicit, meaning it's ingrained and can be executed without explicit awareness.
Advanced Strategies: Learners may start to develop and employ more advanced strategies, as the foundational skills are well-mastered.
Example:
In the autonomous phase of learning to ride a bicycle, the individual can effortlessly pedal, steer, and maintain balance without consciously thinking about each action.
Riding becomes a fluid and automatic process, allowing the individual to focus on more advanced aspects, such as navigating complex terrain or performing tricks.
Rapid Initial Progress: This type of learning curve indicates that, at the beginning of the learning process, individuals make rapid and substantial progress.
Steep Incline: The curve rises sharply in the early stages, reflecting a quick acquisition of skills or knowledge.
Early Gains: Learners experience significant improvements in performance or understanding early on.
Example:
Consider someone learning a new language.
In the positive acceleration phase, they might quickly grasp basic vocabulary, grammar rules, and pronunciation, leading to noticeable progress in their language skills.
Slowed Progress: After an initial period of rapid progress, the rate of learning slows down, and the curve levels off.
Plateau Phase: The plateau represents a period where there is little to no improvement despite continued practice or experience.
Diminishing Returns: Additional effort may yield minimal gains, and learners may feel stuck at a certain level of proficiency.
Example:
Using the language learning example, a learner might experience a plateau after reaching a certain intermediate level.
Despite continued study, they may find it challenging to progress to a more advanced level of fluency.
Combination of Phases: The S-shaped curve combines elements of positive acceleration, a plateau, and eventual positive acceleration again.
Initial Acceleration: Early on, there is rapid progress similar to the positive acceleration phase.
Plateau: After the initial gains, progress levels off, creating a plateau.
Second Acceleration: With continued effort or a change in approach, there is a renewed period of rapid progress.
Example:
Imagine someone learning to play a musical instrument.
Initially, they may make swift progress as they learn basic chords and techniques (positive acceleration).
However, as they tackle more complex pieces, they may experience a plateau.
With dedicated practice or a new learning strategy, they might enter a second phase of accelerated progress.
A linear learning curve represents a steady, consistent rate of learning over time.
It implies that the learner makes uniform progress without significant fluctuations or plateaus.
Individuals with prior experience in a related task or skill may learn more quickly.
Past exposure can provide a foundation, making it easier to grasp new concepts or techniques.
Example: Someone with experience in playing a musical instrument might find it easier to learn a new instrument compared to a complete beginner.
Motivation plays a crucial role in the learning process.
High motivation often leads to increased effort and engagement, which can accelerate the rate of learning.
Example: A person motivated to learn a new language for travel purposes may dedicate more time and effort to language learning, resulting in faster progress.
Effective coaching plays a crucial role in facilitating skill acquisition in sports.
Coaches who possess knowledge of pedagogy, sports science, and specific techniques can provide valuable guidance and feedback to students.
Their ability to break down complex skills into manageable steps and provide tailored instruction can significantly enhance the learning process.
The learning environment, including facilities, resources, and organizational structure, can impact students' ability to acquire skills in sports.
Access to adequate training facilities, equipment, and technology can create opportunities for meaningful practice and skill development.
Additionally, a supportive and positive learning atmosphere fosters motivation and engagement, which are essential for effective learning.
Age can influence the learning rate in sports due to developmental differences in cognitive, physical, and emotional domains.
Younger students may have greater plasticity in motor skill development but may require more basic instruction and supervision.
Older students may possess more advanced cognitive abilities and physical capabilities, allowing them to grasp complex skills more quickly.
However, age-related factors such as declining physical fitness or increased risk of injury in older individuals may also affect the learning process.
Variances in cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills, can impact how quickly individuals grasp and apply new information.
Example: A person with strong analytical skills might excel in learning complex mathematical concepts faster than someone with weaker analytical abilities.
Generally, simple tasks are learned more quickly than complex ones.
The complexity of a task can influence the amount of time and effort required for mastery.
Example: Learning to tie shoelaces is a relatively simple task that can be mastered quickly, while mastering a complex software programming language may take much longer.
Varied Practice
Engaging in varied practice, where the learner works on different aspects or variations of a skill, can enhance overall learning.
This contrasts with repetitive practice on the same task.
Example: In sports, a basketball player practicing varied shots from different positions on the court is likely to improve more rapidly than one repeatedly practicing the same shot.
Distributed Practice
Distributing practice sessions over time, rather than cramming all practice into one session, enhances retention and promotes long-term learning.
Example: Learning a musical instrument through regular, spaced-out practice sessions over several weeks is likely to result in better long-term proficiency.
Focused Practice
Focused practice involves concentrating on specific aspects of a skill that need improvement. It is targeted and purposeful, leading to more efficient learning.
Example: In language learning, focused practice might involve concentrating on mastering a particular grammar rule or pronunciation pattern until proficiency is achieved.
Transfer is the effect of previous learning on the performance of a new skill or the influence of one skill on the learning of another.
Involves the application of skills learned in one context to a different but related context.
For example, a tennis player may transfer their ability to execute a backhand stroke to learning a similar technique in racquetball.
This type of transfer relies on recognizing similarities between skills and adapting existing knowledge and muscle memory to new situations.
Refers to the ability to translate skills practiced in training or practice sessions to real-game situations.
Athletes must be able to execute learned skills effectively during competitive play, applying techniques honed during practice to dynamic and unpredictable game scenarios.
Involves how innate or natural abilities influence the acquisition and refinement of specific skills.
For instance, an individual with exceptional hand-eye coordination may find it easier to learn and master skills such as catching or hitting a ball.
These innate abilities serve as a foundation upon which skills are developed and refined through practice and experience.
Occurs when learning or practicing a skill with one limb (e.g., dominant hand) enhances the performance of the same skill with the opposite limb (e.g., non-dominant hand).
For example, improving accuracy in shooting a basketball with the right hand may also lead to enhanced accuracy when shooting with the left hand.
This transfer of learning can occur from left-to-right or right-to-left limbs.
Involves progressing through the stages of skill acquisition, from cognitive to associative, and finally to autonomous stages.
Initially, learners focus on understanding the skill and its components (cognitive stage), then refine movements and reduce errors through practice (associative stage), and finally execute the skill automatically and fluently without conscious effort (autonomous stage).
Transfer between these stages involves transitioning and building upon previously acquired knowledge and skills.
Refers to the application of theoretical principles or concepts to the practical execution of skills.
Athletes learn fundamental principles such as biomechanics, tactics, and strategies, which inform their decision-making and skill execution during performance.
For example, understanding the principle of leverage in martial arts may improve a fighter's ability to execute a takedown technique effectively.
Massed Practice: Continuous repetition without rest intervals.
Distributed Practice: Spacing out practice sessions with rest intervals.
Blocked Practice: Repeating the same task continuously.
Random Practice: Varied tasks in a random order.
Fixed practice: involves repeating the same task or skill under consistent conditions.
Variable practice: involves practicing the same skill under different conditions or contexts.
Mental practice: also known as imagery or visualization, involves mentally rehearsing a skill without physical execution.
Whole practice involves executing the entire skill in one go.
Characteristics: Continuous, uninterrupted execution.
Application: Best for simpler or continuous skills like cycling.
Benefits: Aids in grasping the overall flow and sequence of the skill.
Examples: Running a complete 100m sprint in practice.
This method starts with practicing the skill as a whole, breaking it down into parts, and then practicing it as a whole again.
Characteristics: Combination of holistic and segmented learning.
Application: Useful for complex skills like a gymnastics routine.
Benefits: Balances understanding of individual components and the overall skill.
Examples: Practicing a dance routine in its entirety, then focusing on difficult steps, and finally performing the entire routine again.
Focuses on learning a skill in segments, adding more parts progressively.
Characteristics: Step-by-step, accumulative learning.
Application: Effective for skills with distinct stages, like a complex dive in swimming.
Benefits: Simplifies learning of multifaceted skills.
Examples: Learning a cricket batting stroke by first mastering the grip, then the stance, and finally the stroke.
In part practice, segments of a skill are practiced in isolation.
Characteristics: Concentrated focus on specific skill segments.
Application: Ideal for addressing specific aspects of a skill, like a particular move in martial arts.
Benefits: Allows in-depth focus and correction of each part.
Examples: Practicing just the footwork in football separately from ball-handling skills.
Command Style: Teacher-centered, direct instruction.
Reciprocal Style: Interaction between teacher and students.
Problem-Solving Style: Encourages students to solve problems on their own.
A learned and adaptable ability to carry out a task effectively.
It involves the coordination of various physical and cognitive elements to achieve a desired outcome.
Developed through practice, experience, and the refinement of motor patterns, making them more automatic and efficient over time.
Fine Motor Skills: Involve precise movements, often associated with small muscle groups (e.g., writing, drawing).
Gross Motor Skills: Encompass larger, more general movements that engage larger muscle groups (e.g., running, jumping).
Decision-Making: The ability to choose the most appropriate action from various alternatives.
Problem-Solving: The capacity to find solutions to challenges or obstacles.
Using senses to assess a situation and help you make decisions (vision, hearing, touch)
Gross Motor Skills: Movements that involve large muscle groups such as arms and legs.
Example: walking, jumping, running, and kicking
Fine Motor Skills: Involve much smaller muscle groups and often require high levels of hand eye coordination.
Example: playing the piano, playing darts, and catching a ball
Open skills are those that are significantly affected by the environmental conditions.
The environment is largely variable and unpredictable and the performer has to adapt their movements accordingly.
Example: jumping for a rebound in basketball
Closed skills are skills that are performed in a more stable and predictable environment and can be internally paced by the performer.
Closed skills follow set movement patterns and are performed in the same way each time.
Example: Archery
Discrete skills: Have a clear start and finish.
Brief and well defined (obvious when it starts and stops)
Example: forward roll gymnastics, golf swing, and penalty stroke (hockey).
Serial skills: Involve linking together skills to form a longer, more together complex movement.
Example: series of flips and somersaults, triple jump (hop, skip, jump)
Continuous skills: Are where the end of one cycle of movement is the beginning of the next.
They are repetitive and rhythmical and take place over a long period of time.
A distance, a target or a set time usually governs the time that the skill is performed for.
Example: swimming, running, and cycling
Externally Paced Skills: The environment, which may include opponents, controls the rate of performing the skill.
The performer must pay attention to external events in order to control his/her rate of movement.
These skills involve reaction, and are usually open skills.
Example: in ball games the performer must time his actions with the actions of other players and the ball.
Internally Paced Skills: The performer controls the rate at which the skill is executed.
These skills are usually closed skills.
Example: javelin throw, discus.
Individual Skills are those skills that are performed in isolation from others.
Only one performer is involved at a particular time.
Ex: archery and the high jump
Coactive Skills are those skills that are performed with someone else, but with no direct confrontation.
Ex: Swimming and track events
Interactive Skills are where other performers are directly involved and can involve confrontation.
This is because there is an active opposition and this directly influences the skill.
Ex: rugby, water polo, and soccer
Skills: Agility, ball control, endurance.
Physical Attributes: Cardiovascular fitness, speed, and coordination.
Skills: Strength, explosive power, technique.
Physical Attributes: Muscular strength, flexibility, and body composition.
Ability is an individual's inherent, enduring capacity to perform various tasks or acquire specific skills.
Categorization: Abilities can be cognitive (e.g., memory, problem-solving), psychomotor (e.g., coordination, reaction time), or physical (e.g., strength, endurance).
Physical Proficiency Abilities
Examples: Endurance, strength, flexibility.
Role: Primarily related to bodily functions and physical attributes.
Perceptual-Motor Abilities
Examples: Coordination, reaction time, spatial orientation.
Role: Involves the integration of sensory and motor functions.
Technique refers to the specific method or approach used to perform a skill.
Emphasis: Technique emphasizes precision, efficiency, and proper execution of movements.
Abilities: Form the foundation for skill acquisition.
Skills: Represent the learned behaviors and actions developed through practice.
Technique: Involves the application of skills in a particular context, focusing on the quality and efficiency of execution.
Skill Acquisition: Skilled performers have typically undergone extensive practice, refining their abilities and skills over time, while novices are still in the early stages of learning and may lack refined motor patterns.
Efficiency: Skilled performers execute tasks with greater efficiency, using less energy and demonstrating more precise movements compared to novices.
Decision Making: Skilled individuals make quicker and more accurate decisions based on their experience and pattern recognition, whereas novices may need more time to analyze situations and make choices.
Consistency: Skilled performers demonstrate greater consistency in their performance, with fewer errors and variations compared to novices who may exhibit more inconsistency.
Adaptability: Skilled individuals can adapt to changing conditions more effectively, adjusting their techniques and strategies as needed, whereas novices may struggle with flexibility and may be more rigid in their approach.
Sensation and Perception
The information processing model begins with sensation and perception.
Sensation is the capacity to have a physical feeling or perception by receiving information from environmental stimuli through our senses.
Perception is becoming aware of, organizing, and interpreting this information so that it makes sense to us.
Memory
The second part of the information processing model is memory.
Once information is gathered from the environment, it must be stored in memory so that it can be accessed and used later.
Memory is essential for learning and understanding new information, and there's a lot we still don't understand about it.
Cognition
Cognition is the third part of the information processing model.
It refers to how we process information in our minds.
Our cognitive abilities include simple mental processes (like sensation and perception) and more complex mental processes.
These processes allow us to make sense of the information we receive from the world around us.
Sensory Input: The sensory information relevant to the situation is stored in short-term memory.
The information is taken in through the senses before a decision is made in three ways.
These are; what we see (vision) what we hear (auditory) what we sense (proprioception).
Exteroceptors: These are receptors located in the skin and mucous membranes that detect external stimuli such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Proprioceptors: These receptors are found in muscles, tendons, and joints, and they provide information about the position and movement of body parts.
Interoceptors: These receptors are located in internal organs and provide information about internal conditions such as hunger, thirst, and pain.
Short and Long-Term Memory: All information gathered from the various sensory inputs is stored for a split second in the short-term memory before processing.
It is suggested that short-term memory can only hold up to seven pieces of information and retain for less than a minute.
Long-term memory, which appears to have a limitless capacity, contains information about past experiences.
Decision Process: The decision process occurs by comparing the current situation, held in the short-term memory, with previous experiences, held in long-term memory, to determine appropriate action.
Action: The action is performed regarding the movement pattern stored in long-term memory.
Once the action is completed, the situation and result are stored in long-term memory for future reference.
Effector control refers to the regulation of movements by the nervous system. Welford's Model emphasizes the role of feedback in controlling motor actions.
Feedback is information received after executing a movement that allows for adjustments to be made. This model suggests that feedback is crucial for achieving accurate and efficient motor control.
Signal detection involves distinguishing between meaningful signals and background noise.
It includes the processes of sensitivity and decision-making, influenced by factors like experience and motivation.
Early signal detection refers to the ability to detect a signal within noise.
Signal Detection Theory explores how individuals make decisions about the presence or absence of a signal in the presence of uncertainty or noise.
Improving signal detection involves enhancing sensitivity to signals and reducing response bias.
Short-Term Sensory Store (STSS): Brief storage of sensory information (e.g., iconic memory for visual stimuli).
Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity storage for information actively being processed.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent storage with a vast capacity for information and experiences.
Memory Definition (Tulving, 1985): Memory is the capacity that allows organisms to benefit from past experiences. It involves storing previous occurrences in long-term memory for retrieval in future experiences.
Selective Attention (Welford, 1968; Wickens, 1980): Selective attention is the ability to focus on one thing at a time or on multiple things that require different areas of the brain. It involves prioritizing relevant information while ignoring distractions.
Role in Competitive Sports
In competitive sports, memory is crucial for recalling and retrieving knowledge from long-term memory to inform current performance. Selective attention is essential for focusing only on relevant memories and information needed for the task at hand, filtering out distractions.
Application in Performance
In a sporting context, selective memory allows athletes to recall relevant training and skills while filtering out irrelevant information. For example, during a game, an athlete may remember various training drills and strategies, but selectively focus on the specific movements and decisions required in the current situation.
Example
In a touch game, a player performing an attacking line move may recall various training sessions and drills related to that move. With the aid of selective attention, they focus only on the specific aspects relevant to their current position, situation, and the movements of their teammates and opponents. This selective focus enhances decision-making and performance during the game.
Rehearsal: the more a memory is rehearsed, the more likely it is that it will be remembered.
Coding: crucial first step to creating a new memory. It allows the received item of interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored and then recalled later from short-term or long-term memory.
Brevity: the quicker a process is learned, the more likely it is to be remembered.
Clarity: initially you don’t always know what to respond to; the coach/teacher can begin with a simple approach and build on the information; help you focus.
Chunking: pieces of information are grouped together then remembered as one piece of information.
Organization: involve structuring information in meaningful ways, such as categorization or creating mnemonic devices.
Association practice: involves linking new information with existing knowledge to facilitate encoding and retrieval.
Response Time = Reaction Time + Movement Time
the time from the introduction of a stimulus to the completion of the action required to deal with the situation.
Reaction time: time elapsed for the onset of a stimulus to the start of the response.
Movement time: time it takes to carry out the motor aspect of the performance.
Response time is ability, having individual and group variance (for example, gender and age).
Includes stimulus transmission, detection, recognition, decision to respond, nerve transmission time and initiation of action.
Gets faster during childhood/adolescence
Gets slower as we get older
Movement time depends on fitness
Number of choices to be made
Males have quicker reactions than female, but the reaction times of females deteriorate less quickly than males
Hick’s Law: Hick (1952) found that as you double the number of stimulus-response couplings there is a linear increase in response time.
The period of time during which the response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed.
The processing of stimulus 2 cannot take place until processing of stimulus 1 is complete.
S1: player 1 plays a forehand drive towards player 2’s forehand
R1: player 2 prepared to return with a forehand drive
S2: ball hits net, slow and changed direction
R2: player 2 must change shot selection from forehand to backhand
S1: player 1 shapes to pass the ball
R1: player 2 follows the direction of the intended pass
S2: the ball has not been passed
R2: player 2 must focus attention back on the ball carrier (player 1)
Defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory regardless of whether feedback is used in their execution.
A PLAN of the whole skill or pattern of movement
Catching a ball in basketball
Hitting a ball in tennis
A whole plan (executive program/motor program) and subroutines
Executive: a number of motor programs put together (gymnastics routine)
Subroutine: building block of a motor program; “mini skills” (kicking, catching, throwing, dribbling)
Executive programs can only be executed successfully by training and focusing on subroutines
Coordination of subroutines
When a specific action is required, the memory process retrieves the stored programme and transmits the motor commands via nerve impulses to the relevant muscles allowing movement to occur.
This is known as ‘executive motor programme.
This programme is recalled when needed.
If this skill is learned then the reaction time to produce the skill is very short.
When the performer becomes more skilled than the motor programme, it is taken away and superseded by a new programme.
Open loops – performance of a skill without recourse to feedback.
hitting (or attempting to hit) a 100mph fastball or a 140mph tennis serve
(no alteration of movement possible – since the stimuli is too fast for feedback/adjustments to occur)
Closed loops – involves the process of feedback.
not all movements take place so quickly – many can be altered during their execution
Control is internal (proprioceptors detect and correct errors)
Perceptual trace - memory for the feel of successful past experience/movements
(slower pitch reaction, slower serves, deflected or redirected balls)
Memory trace refers to the physical or chemical changes in the brain associated with memory storage.
Feedback – describes information resulting from an action or response.
Concurrent feedback is received during the execution of a task, while terminal feedback is provided after the task is completed.
Intrinsic feedback – available to a performer/athlete without outside help.
Extrinsic feedback – is provided by someone (coach/teacher) or something else (stopwatch, game clock, tape measure).
Knowledge of Result - is a post response information concerning the outcome of the action (visual).
Knowledge of Performance - consists of post-response information concerning the nature of the movement (feel).
Positive: telling someone they did well; or prescriptive feedback (telling the learner how to improve)
Negative: concentrates on errors; “you’re wrong”; demotivation and of little use to beginners (they need prescriptive feedback)
Know the difference between Knowledge of results (KR) vs. Knowledge of Performance (KP)
The most obvious form of KR is visual (self recognized or w/assistance)
The most obvious form of KP is the “feel” of the movement (i.e recognition of the sensory consequences)
It can be concurrent or;
Terminal feedback via a coach or video review.
Feedback can also be positive or negative.
Motivation: we all like praise from those we perceive as being important.
Failure of coaches giving praise can result in loss of self-confidence in the players.
Too much praise can have a negative effect in that the words end up meaning nothing or they learner will begin not to perceive them at all.
Adaptation of Performance: prescriptive feedback (performer need to be told what to do in order to improve performance)
Punishment: focuses on reducing an unwanted behavior but does not teach a replacement for it
Learning refers to the relatively permanent change in behavior or capability that results from practice or experience.
It involves the acquisition of knowledge or skills that can be retained over time.
It is a process that occurs over an extended period, and it often involves the internalization of information or the development of new abilities.
This internalization is not always immediately observable and may not manifest in performance until later stages.
Performance, on the other hand, is the actual execution of a skill during a specific instance or task.
It is the observable behavior or action that occurs in real-time.
It can be influenced by various factors such as motivation, fatigue, stress, or external conditions.
Unlike learning, performance may not necessarily lead to permanent changes.
A person can perform a skill without necessarily having learned it in the long term.
Focus: In this initial phase, learners are primarily focused on understanding the task and the requirements involved.
Mental Model Formation: Learners form a mental representation or model of the task.
This involves grasping the fundamental concepts, rules, and strategies.
Trial and Error: Individuals may rely on trial-and-error to discover what works and what doesn't.
High Cognitive Load: Cognitive resources are heavily engaged, and the learning process may feel challenging and effortful.
Feedback: Learners often benefit from explicit instruction and feedback during this phase.
Example:
Imagine someone learning to ride a bicycle for the first time.
In the cognitive phase, they grasp the basic concepts of balance, steering, and pedaling.
They form a mental model of how these elements work together.
Refinement of Movements: Learners start to refine their movements based on feedback received during the cognitive phase.
They work on minimizing errors and improving the efficiency of their actions.
Practice and Repetition: This phase involves extensive practice. Learners engage in repetitive activities to solidify their understanding and enhance skill execution.
Decreased Cognitive Load: As skills become more familiar, cognitive load decreases. Movements become smoother and more automatic.
Error Detection and Correction: Errors are still present, but learners become more adept at detecting and correcting them independently.
Example:
Continuing with the bicycle example, in the associative phase, the learner practices riding regularly.
They focus on refining their balance, pedaling technique, and steering.
Feedback from each ride helps them make adjustments and improve their efficiency.
Automation of Skills: In the autonomous phase, skills become automated, requiring minimal conscious thought for execution.
Fluency: Movements are executed with fluency and precision. The learner can perform the task with less effort and attention.
Implicit Knowledge: Knowledge of the task becomes implicit, meaning it's ingrained and can be executed without explicit awareness.
Advanced Strategies: Learners may start to develop and employ more advanced strategies, as the foundational skills are well-mastered.
Example:
In the autonomous phase of learning to ride a bicycle, the individual can effortlessly pedal, steer, and maintain balance without consciously thinking about each action.
Riding becomes a fluid and automatic process, allowing the individual to focus on more advanced aspects, such as navigating complex terrain or performing tricks.
Rapid Initial Progress: This type of learning curve indicates that, at the beginning of the learning process, individuals make rapid and substantial progress.
Steep Incline: The curve rises sharply in the early stages, reflecting a quick acquisition of skills or knowledge.
Early Gains: Learners experience significant improvements in performance or understanding early on.
Example:
Consider someone learning a new language.
In the positive acceleration phase, they might quickly grasp basic vocabulary, grammar rules, and pronunciation, leading to noticeable progress in their language skills.
Slowed Progress: After an initial period of rapid progress, the rate of learning slows down, and the curve levels off.
Plateau Phase: The plateau represents a period where there is little to no improvement despite continued practice or experience.
Diminishing Returns: Additional effort may yield minimal gains, and learners may feel stuck at a certain level of proficiency.
Example:
Using the language learning example, a learner might experience a plateau after reaching a certain intermediate level.
Despite continued study, they may find it challenging to progress to a more advanced level of fluency.
Combination of Phases: The S-shaped curve combines elements of positive acceleration, a plateau, and eventual positive acceleration again.
Initial Acceleration: Early on, there is rapid progress similar to the positive acceleration phase.
Plateau: After the initial gains, progress levels off, creating a plateau.
Second Acceleration: With continued effort or a change in approach, there is a renewed period of rapid progress.
Example:
Imagine someone learning to play a musical instrument.
Initially, they may make swift progress as they learn basic chords and techniques (positive acceleration).
However, as they tackle more complex pieces, they may experience a plateau.
With dedicated practice or a new learning strategy, they might enter a second phase of accelerated progress.
A linear learning curve represents a steady, consistent rate of learning over time.
It implies that the learner makes uniform progress without significant fluctuations or plateaus.
Individuals with prior experience in a related task or skill may learn more quickly.
Past exposure can provide a foundation, making it easier to grasp new concepts or techniques.
Example: Someone with experience in playing a musical instrument might find it easier to learn a new instrument compared to a complete beginner.
Motivation plays a crucial role in the learning process.
High motivation often leads to increased effort and engagement, which can accelerate the rate of learning.
Example: A person motivated to learn a new language for travel purposes may dedicate more time and effort to language learning, resulting in faster progress.
Effective coaching plays a crucial role in facilitating skill acquisition in sports.
Coaches who possess knowledge of pedagogy, sports science, and specific techniques can provide valuable guidance and feedback to students.
Their ability to break down complex skills into manageable steps and provide tailored instruction can significantly enhance the learning process.
The learning environment, including facilities, resources, and organizational structure, can impact students' ability to acquire skills in sports.
Access to adequate training facilities, equipment, and technology can create opportunities for meaningful practice and skill development.
Additionally, a supportive and positive learning atmosphere fosters motivation and engagement, which are essential for effective learning.
Age can influence the learning rate in sports due to developmental differences in cognitive, physical, and emotional domains.
Younger students may have greater plasticity in motor skill development but may require more basic instruction and supervision.
Older students may possess more advanced cognitive abilities and physical capabilities, allowing them to grasp complex skills more quickly.
However, age-related factors such as declining physical fitness or increased risk of injury in older individuals may also affect the learning process.
Variances in cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills, can impact how quickly individuals grasp and apply new information.
Example: A person with strong analytical skills might excel in learning complex mathematical concepts faster than someone with weaker analytical abilities.
Generally, simple tasks are learned more quickly than complex ones.
The complexity of a task can influence the amount of time and effort required for mastery.
Example: Learning to tie shoelaces is a relatively simple task that can be mastered quickly, while mastering a complex software programming language may take much longer.
Varied Practice
Engaging in varied practice, where the learner works on different aspects or variations of a skill, can enhance overall learning.
This contrasts with repetitive practice on the same task.
Example: In sports, a basketball player practicing varied shots from different positions on the court is likely to improve more rapidly than one repeatedly practicing the same shot.
Distributed Practice
Distributing practice sessions over time, rather than cramming all practice into one session, enhances retention and promotes long-term learning.
Example: Learning a musical instrument through regular, spaced-out practice sessions over several weeks is likely to result in better long-term proficiency.
Focused Practice
Focused practice involves concentrating on specific aspects of a skill that need improvement. It is targeted and purposeful, leading to more efficient learning.
Example: In language learning, focused practice might involve concentrating on mastering a particular grammar rule or pronunciation pattern until proficiency is achieved.
Transfer is the effect of previous learning on the performance of a new skill or the influence of one skill on the learning of another.
Involves the application of skills learned in one context to a different but related context.
For example, a tennis player may transfer their ability to execute a backhand stroke to learning a similar technique in racquetball.
This type of transfer relies on recognizing similarities between skills and adapting existing knowledge and muscle memory to new situations.
Refers to the ability to translate skills practiced in training or practice sessions to real-game situations.
Athletes must be able to execute learned skills effectively during competitive play, applying techniques honed during practice to dynamic and unpredictable game scenarios.
Involves how innate or natural abilities influence the acquisition and refinement of specific skills.
For instance, an individual with exceptional hand-eye coordination may find it easier to learn and master skills such as catching or hitting a ball.
These innate abilities serve as a foundation upon which skills are developed and refined through practice and experience.
Occurs when learning or practicing a skill with one limb (e.g., dominant hand) enhances the performance of the same skill with the opposite limb (e.g., non-dominant hand).
For example, improving accuracy in shooting a basketball with the right hand may also lead to enhanced accuracy when shooting with the left hand.
This transfer of learning can occur from left-to-right or right-to-left limbs.
Involves progressing through the stages of skill acquisition, from cognitive to associative, and finally to autonomous stages.
Initially, learners focus on understanding the skill and its components (cognitive stage), then refine movements and reduce errors through practice (associative stage), and finally execute the skill automatically and fluently without conscious effort (autonomous stage).
Transfer between these stages involves transitioning and building upon previously acquired knowledge and skills.
Refers to the application of theoretical principles or concepts to the practical execution of skills.
Athletes learn fundamental principles such as biomechanics, tactics, and strategies, which inform their decision-making and skill execution during performance.
For example, understanding the principle of leverage in martial arts may improve a fighter's ability to execute a takedown technique effectively.
Massed Practice: Continuous repetition without rest intervals.
Distributed Practice: Spacing out practice sessions with rest intervals.
Blocked Practice: Repeating the same task continuously.
Random Practice: Varied tasks in a random order.
Fixed practice: involves repeating the same task or skill under consistent conditions.
Variable practice: involves practicing the same skill under different conditions or contexts.
Mental practice: also known as imagery or visualization, involves mentally rehearsing a skill without physical execution.
Whole practice involves executing the entire skill in one go.
Characteristics: Continuous, uninterrupted execution.
Application: Best for simpler or continuous skills like cycling.
Benefits: Aids in grasping the overall flow and sequence of the skill.
Examples: Running a complete 100m sprint in practice.
This method starts with practicing the skill as a whole, breaking it down into parts, and then practicing it as a whole again.
Characteristics: Combination of holistic and segmented learning.
Application: Useful for complex skills like a gymnastics routine.
Benefits: Balances understanding of individual components and the overall skill.
Examples: Practicing a dance routine in its entirety, then focusing on difficult steps, and finally performing the entire routine again.
Focuses on learning a skill in segments, adding more parts progressively.
Characteristics: Step-by-step, accumulative learning.
Application: Effective for skills with distinct stages, like a complex dive in swimming.
Benefits: Simplifies learning of multifaceted skills.
Examples: Learning a cricket batting stroke by first mastering the grip, then the stance, and finally the stroke.
In part practice, segments of a skill are practiced in isolation.
Characteristics: Concentrated focus on specific skill segments.
Application: Ideal for addressing specific aspects of a skill, like a particular move in martial arts.
Benefits: Allows in-depth focus and correction of each part.
Examples: Practicing just the footwork in football separately from ball-handling skills.
Command Style: Teacher-centered, direct instruction.
Reciprocal Style: Interaction between teacher and students.
Problem-Solving Style: Encourages students to solve problems on their own.
