Semester 1 Final

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

tendency to think that we know more than we actually do

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Reliability

Consistency of a measurement

Validity

Accuracy of a measurement

Sample

A smaller group of individuals that are selected from a population

Sampling

The act / process of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger population

Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when the sample selected does not accurately represent the larger population

Convience sampling

Individuals are selected based on how accessible they are; makes it easier for the resercher

Representative Sampling

Subset of a population used to reflect the characteristics of the larger group

Random Sampling

Every member of a population has the same chance of being selected

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to respond to questions in in ways that presents them in a favorable light

Case Study

In-depth investigation of an individual or small group; has his details of subjects but has no generalization

Meta Analysis

Statistical combination of results from two or more separate studies; cis accurate but is not relevant

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording natural behavior: has ecological validity but no manipulation

Correlation

the extent to which 2 variables are related; can predict behavior but can have 3rd variable

Positive Correlation

Two variables both go up

Negative Correlation

Two variables both go down

No Correlation

There is no relationship between the two variables

Correlation Coefficient

Statistical measure that shows the degree of relationships between two variables

Directionality Problem

The uncertainty about the causal relationship between two correlated variables

3rd Variable Problem

An undiscovered causative variable

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores on a test or measurement to move closer to the average score when the test is repeated

Illusory Correlation

Perception of a relationship between two variables exist when no such relationship actually exists

Experiment

A research method where researchers manipulate and independent variable to observe its effects on a dependent variable while controlling other factors

Control Group

A set of participants in a research study who are not manipulated

Experimental Group

A group of participants in a study who are manipulated

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that a researcher directly manipulates, changes, or controls to observe its effects on another variable

Dependent Variable

The factor that is measured and may change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable

Placebo

A substance or procedure that is given to a participant in a research study as a control condition

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where someone experiences improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment

Confounding Variable

An external, unplanned factor that influences the relationship between an independent variable and dependent variable

Random Assignment

Experimental technique where participants are randomly placed into different groups using a chance procedure

Participant Bias

The tendency for participants to respond or behave in a way that deviates from their true feelings or natural responses; social desirability bias

Experimenter Bias

When researchers unconsciously influence their experimenters results based on their expectations or preferences

Single Blind

Only participants are unaware of which experimental condition they are assigned to

Double Blind

Where both researcher and participant are unaware of which experimental condition they are assigned to

Mean

Average number; add up all and divide by the amount of numbers given

Median

Middle value arranged in ascending order

Mode

Most frequent value

Mean

Which measure of central tendency is most impacted by outliers?

Range

Difference between highest number and lowest number

Standard Deviation

A statistical measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values in a dataset relative to its mean

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve representing the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes

Percentile Rank

Indicates the percentage of test-takers in a norm group who scored at or below a particular student's score

Negative Skew

The bulk of scores clustering on the high (right) side and a longer tail of less frequent scores extending to the low (left) side ; more high scores

Positive Skew

A distribution where most scores are low, with a few extremely high scores pulling the curve to the right, creating a long tail on the right side of the graph

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution in which two values appear with the highest frequency

Statistical Significance

Indicates that the results of a study are so unlikely to have occurred by chance alone that they suggest a true relationship or effect

Informed Consent

Ethical principle requiring researchers to provide potential participants with enough information about a study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits so they can make a rational, voluntary decision about whether to participate

Protection From Harm

Ethical principle requiring researchers to safeguard participants from any physical or psychological distress, pain, or injury during a study

Confidentiality

Ethical principle of protecting the privacy and personal information of research participants

Debriefing

Process of providing research participants with a full explanation of the study's purpose, procedures, and any deception used, particularly after they have completed their participation

Confederate

Someone who pretends to be a participant in a study but is actually working with the researcher

Twin studies

help figures out what traits come from genes and what comes from the environment

CNS

Main control center of the body

PNS

network of nerves that connects the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to the rest of the body

Somatic

Voluntary actions of the body like muscle movement

Autonomatic

Controls involuntary bodily functions without conscious thought (heart rate, breathing)

Sympathetic

prepares the body for action during times of stress or danger (fight-or-flight)

Parasympathetic

Rest and digest; conserve energy, slow heart rate, promote relaxation

Dendrites

Receives messages

Axon

Carries message

Myelin sheath

Fatty covering to help speed up signals

Reflex arc

pathway a nerve signal takes to produce a quick, automatic reaction (reflex) without thinking

Sensory neurons

They tell your brain what you’re feeling, seeing, or hearing

Motor neurons

They tell your muscles when to move

Interneurons

connect sensory neurons and motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord

Multiple sclerosis

a disease where the immune system damages the myelin sheath around nerves, slowing or blocking nerve signals

Myasthenia gravis

a disease where the immune system blocks or destroys the connections between nerves and muscles, causing muscle weakness

Adrenaline

during stress or danger that makes you feel alert and ready to react fast

Leptin

makes you not hungry

Ghrelin

makes you feel hungry

Melatonin

controls your sleep

Oxytocin

helps with bonding, trust, and feelings of love

ACh

helps with muscle movement, memory, and learning

Dopamine

controls motivation, and feelings of pleasure / reward

Serotonin

controls your mood

Norepinephrine

controls alertness, focus, and energy

GABA

calms the brain

Endorphins

reduce pain and make you feel good or happy

Substance P

helps send pain signals to the brain

Glutamate

send fast signals between nerve cells and is important for learning and memory

Brainstem + medulla

controls involuntary body functions

Reticular formation / RAS

helps keep you awake and alert

cerebellum

maintain balance and coordinate voluntary movements

thalamus

relay system for all senses but smell

hypothalamus

keeps body regulated

Pituitary gland

produces and release hormones

hippocampus

memory and learning, turn short term to long term memory

amygdala

fear and aggression

corpus callosum

connects the two hemispheres together

occipital lobe

visual processing

temporal lobe

understand hearing, speech

parietal lobe

touch sensitivity and spatial awareness

somatosensory cortex

process sensory info

wernicke’s area

speech comprehension

frontal lobe

decision making and planning

motor cortex

voluntary movements

broca’s area

speech production