Understanding Self-Concept and Personality Development

What is self-concept?

The idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one holds about oneself and the responses of others.

At what age does an infant typically recognize themselves as distinct from their caregivers?

Around 18 months, though this can vary.

What method is used to assess an infant's self-recognition?

A mark is placed on the child's face, and their reaction is analyzed when placed in front of a mirror.

What developmental milestones occur between 2-3 years regarding self-identity?

Children begin identifying themselves by age, gender, and in the context of their family.

What cognitive ability is demonstrated through pretend play in early childhood?

The ability to recognize oneself.

What are self-referential pronouns, and why are they significant?

They are pronouns that refer to oneself, indicating a developing self-concept.

What influences the self-concept during pre-pubescence (ages 3-12)?

It is based on talents and skills, as well as social awareness and comparison with peers.

What is the 'private self' and how can it manifest in children?

It refers to a child's internal sense of self, which can manifest as an imaginary friend.

What key social development occurs during adolescence regarding self-awareness?

Adolescents develop objective awareness and recognize themselves as the focal point for others' awareness.

What is evaluation apprehension and how can it affect social behavior?

It is discomfort in anticipating social interactions, which can lead to shyness and social anxiety.

What is self-schemata?

A cognitive representation of self-concept that is key in social interaction.

What are possible selves?

Schemas for future selves that inspire future behavior, including ideal self and ought self.

How does self-esteem vary across different life stages?

In early childhood, it relates to expectations; in later childhood, it relates to social comparison; and in adolescence, it involves internal standards.

What impact does criticism and failure feedback have on individuals with low self-esteem?

They may perform poorly in subsequent tasks and give up due to the connection between their self-view and external feedback.

How do individuals with high self-esteem typically approach challenges?

They enhance their self-concept through risk-taking and striving for success.

What are some behaviors associated with low self-esteem?

Defense pessimism and self-handicapping, which involve preparing for negative outcomes and acting in ways that increase the chance of failure.

What is self-esteem variability?

The magnitude of short-term fluctuations in self-esteem.

What is body-dysmorphic disorder?

A preoccupation with perceived defects in physical appearance, linked with low self-esteem and compulsive behaviors.

What is social identity?

The way in which one presents oneself to others.

What are the two aspects of identity discussed in the notes?

Continuity (stability in identity) and contrast (aspects that make one different).

What is an identity crisis and when does it commonly occur?

Anxiety about defining individuality and social reputation, often occurring during adolescence.

What are identity deficits and their potential consequences?

When identity is not fully formed, leading to susceptibility to influence and internalizing messages.

What are identity conflicts?

Incompatibility between two or more aspects of one's identity, common in adolescents.

What is the resolution of identity conflict?

Deciding which values are important and transforming them into desires and goal-accomplishing behaviors.

What is Evocation in the context of relationships?

The ability to effectively evoke a response in others.

What does Manipulation refer to in interpersonal dynamics?

Strategies used to persuade or influence others to fulfill a desire.

What are the most favored traits in romantic relationships according to a study of 10,000 individuals?

Love and mutual attraction.

Which traits are considered less important but still favored in romantic relationships?

Dependability, emotional stability, and pleasing disposition.

What does Attraction Similarity Theory suggest?

Personality overlap between partners is common and often successful in relationships.

What is Assortative Mating?

A theory suggesting that people tend to pair with others who have similar traits.

What does Complementary Needs Theory propose?

The idea that 'opposites attract' in romantic relationships.

How does proximity influence romantic relationships?

Romantic relationships are commonly formed within the same geographical location.

What did Buss's 1990 experiment reveal about partner preferences?

People who score high on a particular trait prefer partners high in the same trait, indicating social preference plays a key role.

What traits contribute to relationship satisfaction?

High agreeableness, emotional stability, openness, and conscientiousness.

What is the Violation of Desire Theory?

The theory that a lack of close match between one's ideal mate and actual personality of a mate can lead to relationship issues.

What is Hostile Attribution Bias?

The tendency to infer hostile intent in others' uncertain behavior.

What are the strongest personality predictors of relationship upset?

Low agreeableness and high emotional instability (neuroticism).

What is Expectancy Confirmation in relationships?

The phenomenon where beliefs about another person may cause actions consistent with those beliefs.

What are some manipulation tactics used in relationships?

High openness (reason, charm), social comparison (low openness), coercion (high dominance), and silent treatment (low agreeableness).

What is Machiavellianism?

A personality trait characterized by strategic manipulativeness, indifference to morality, and lack of empathy.

What is the Dark Triad?

A combination of high levels of psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism (sadism).

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex is the biological classification (male, female, intersex), while gender is the socio-cultural interpretation of that classification.

What are gender stereotypes?

Beliefs about how men and women differ or should differ versus actual differences.

What is sexual orientation?

The sexual or emotional attraction to others based on sex or gender.

What is gender identity?

An inherent, deep-felt sense of who one is regarding their gender.

What is inhibitory control in children?

The capacity to control inhibitions.

What is Perceptual Sensitivity?

The capacity to recognize faint stimuli.

How do girls and boys compare in terms of inhibitory control?

Girls often have higher inhibitory control than boys.

What is Surgency in the context of gender differences?

Surgency refers to the tendency towards high-intensity pleasure and reward seeking; boys often exhibit higher surgency than girls.

What is Negative Affectivity?

Experiencing negative emotions; overall, no significant differences between genders, though girls may be higher in fearfulness and boys in anger.

What are the Big Five personality traits?

The Big Five include Extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness, Neuroticism, and Conscientiousness.

How do women and men differ in Extraversion?

Women are higher in gregariousness, while men are higher in activity level and assertiveness.

What are the gender differences in Agreeableness?

Women are higher in trusting and tender-mindedness, while men exhibit higher physical aggression.

Are there major differences in the Openness trait between genders?

No major differences in sub-facets, but women are slightly higher in 'feelings' and men in 'ideas'.

What is the gender difference in Neuroticism?

Mixed data; women are generally higher in anxiety.

How do women and men differ in Conscientiousness?

No major differences in sub-facets, but women are slightly higher in order.

What is the ratio of women to men diagnosed with depression?

Women are diagnosed with depression at a rate of 2:1 compared to men.

What are some symptoms women report more frequently related to depression?

Increased appetite/weight changes, crying, emotional pain manifesting physically, and nervous/fidgety activity.

What is the suicide attempt ratio between women and men?

Women attempt suicide at a higher rate (3:1), but men die by suicide at higher rates (4:1).

Why do men die by suicide more often than women?

Men often use more lethal methods, abuse substances, and seek help less.

What factors contribute to higher suicide rates among transgender Canadians?

Exacerbated social exclusion and isolation.

What are some protective factors for transgender individuals regarding suicide risk?

Inclusion, parental support, identity documents congruent with one's identity, and social support.

What is Socialization Theory in the context of gender roles?

It suggests that certain gender roles are reinforced through social influences like media and toys.

How does Social Role Theory explain gender differences?

It posits that men and women differ in occupational and family roles, with traditional roles like 'breadwinner' for men and 'homemaker' for women.

What does Hormonal Theory suggest about gender differences?

It links sex differences in testosterone to traditional behaviors and personality traits, such as aggression in men.

What is the premise of Evolutionary Theory regarding gender differences?

It suggests that sexes differ in response to recurrent adaptive problems, with men adopting more dominant traits due to ancestral roles.

What does Cultural Variation refer to in personality studies?

It involves analyzing within-group similarities and between-group differences.

What is Evoked Culture?

It considers how different environments trigger varying cultural phenomena.

What is the underlying universal mechanism that allows for differences to manifest?

The capacity for differences to manifest.

How do environmental differences affect the universal mechanism?

They influence how the mechanism is activated.

What factors can influence mating strategies according to the notes?

Impulsivity and early reproduction.

What parenting style is associated with harsh, inconsistent childcare?

It leads to erratically provided resources.

What are some social behaviors influenced by the economy?

Honours, insults, and aggression, which depend on how the economy is maintained.

What is transmitted culture?

Representation in at least one person's mind that is transmitted to others, such as moral values.

What are the two cultural orientations mentioned?

Collectivism and Individualism.

What does collectivism emphasize?

Focus on relationships, interdependence, and communion.

What does individualism emphasize?

Focus on uniqueness and being separate from the group.

What is self-construal?

The way individuals perceive themselves in relation to others.

What are the two aspects of self-concept discussed?

Agency/independence and communion/interdependence.

What is acculturation?

The process of adapting to the way of life of a new culture.

How does social class affect obedience and self-direction?

Individuals from lower social classes tend to have higher obedience levels compared to those from higher classes, who are often more self-directed.

How does historical era influence cultural behavior?

It affects the social and economic status of a society, influencing frugality and social norms.

What are cultural universals in emotional experience?

Similarities in recognizing emotional expressions; types of emotions are often universal, though terms and expressions vary.

What are the universal traits across cultures mentioned?

Warmth and dominance, along with most of the Big 5 personality traits.

What is stress defined as in the notes?

A subjective feeling due to uncontrollable or threatening events.

What is the interactional model in relation to personality and illness?

It posits that personality moderates the relationship between stress and illness, impacting coping ability.

What does the transactional model emphasize?

Connections between personality and stress, influencing how one deals with stress and event perception.

What is the health and behavior model?

It mediates behavior, linking personality to health-promoting or degrading behaviors.

What is the predispositional model?

It links personality and illness through an underlying predisposition that accounts for both.

What does the illness-behavior model suggest?

Personality impacts how individuals make sense of their experiences.

What is the degree to which we perceive and attend to bodily sensations?

It refers to how much attention we give to our bodily sensations and how we interpret them.

How do individuals high in neuroticism relate to health?

They tend to attend more to bodily sensations and perceive them as illness.

What is healthy neuroticism?

It is a combination of neuroticism and conscientiousness that leads to hypervigilance and treatment-seeking behavior.

What are stressors?

Different things that evoke stress, which must be extreme in some manner, producing opposing tendencies.

What characterizes the alarm stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome?

It triggers the fight or flight response.

What happens during the resistance stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome?

The body uses resources at a high rate, and physiological responses become apparent.

What occurs in the exhaustion stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome?

Resources are exhausted while stress continues, leading to elevated illness susceptibility.

What is a major event in the context of stress?

A significant occurrence that causes stress and requires substantial adjustment, not necessarily negative.

What are daily hassles and their effects?

Minor stressors that, when sustained over time, can lead to psychological and physical symptoms like headaches and lower immune function.

What is acute stress?

Stress resulting from the sudden onset of demands, such as a deadline.