SDSU BIO 212 Test 5

Function of Respiratory System

Conduction of gasses to and from respiratory surfaces

Protection of respiratory surfaces

Sound protection

Defense against pathogens, allergens, and debris

Gas exchange

Regulation of blood volume, blood pressure, fluid levels and blood pH

Zones of respiratory system

Conductive Zone

Respiratory Zone

Conductive Zone

Transports air

Warms, Humidifies, Filters Air

Sound Protection

Respiratory Zone

Defense

Gas Exchange

Regulations of various blood properties

Types of Gas Exchange

External Respiration

Internal Respiration

External Respiration

Between lungs (alveoli) and bloodstream

Internal Respiration

Between bloodstream and oxygen-starved tissue

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelia

Within goblet cells that traps debris

Cilia moves rhythmically, sweeping debris along surfaces

Humidifies and filters air

Part of conductive zone (nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi)

Stratified Squamous Epithelia

Shared region of conductive zone

Protective tissue (vestibule; oro- and laryngopharynx)

Simple Cubodial Epithelia

Tissue that are found in most bronchioles

Simple Squamous Epithelia

Tissue that is found in all respiratory zone

Point of gas exchange

Nose and Nasal Cavity

Region lined with PCSS

Highly vascular to warm air

Contains the turbinate bones

Turbinate bones

Nasal Conchae

Swirls air throwing it against moist, sticky walls to moisturize and filter air

Pharynx

Region is made up of a muscular tube that are broken up into 3 parts

Oropharynx and Laryngopharyxn shared spaces with respiratory and digestive system

Soft palate seals at back wall to close off oropharynx and nasal cavity

Nasopharynx

Hard plate to uvula

Made up of PSCC

Oropharynx

Fauces to hyoid bone

Made up of stratified squamous epithelia

Laryngopharynx

Hyoid bone to esophagus

Stratified squamous epithelia

Larynx

Region known as voice box

Made up cartilage and connective tissue

Closed off by epiglottis

Epiglottis

Made up of elastic cartilage

Laryngeal Prominence

Thyroid Cartilage

Largest type of cartilage and enlarges to form Adam's Apple in males

Difference in Voices

Women/Kids - Shorter, thinner cords; Higher voices

Men - Puberty -> dramatic enlargement of larynx ; Longer, thicker cords; Deeper voice

Trachea

Region that made up with PSCC

5 inches long; 1 inch wide

Located in anterior portion of neck and posterior to heart

C shaped rings that are open in the bag

Kept open by cartilage

Muscle in back region constricts during coughing allow for swallowing in esophagus

Carina

Internal Keel that is highly sensitive in trachea

Bronchi

Region where trachea splits into branches

Made up of PSCC

As it gets smaller, lose cartilage

Left side is narrow and more horizontal

Right side is wider and vertical (inhaled objects come here)

Bronchioles

Region made up of PSCC and simple cuboidal epithelia

Consists of small tubes that are wrapped in smooth muscle

Good blood and nerve supply

Asthma can affect these tubes

Asthma

Swelling (edema) of tissue lining

Increased mucus secretion

Smooth muscle contraction

Bronchioles may collapse

Alveoli

Region made up of simple squamous epithelia

Found in bundles with bronchioles

Networked with capillaries and elastic fibers

Majority of gas exchange occurs here

Types of cells in Alveoli

Type 1 Cells

Dust Cells

Type 2 Cells (surfactant cells)

Type 1 Cells

Simple Squamous Cells

Gas Diffusion

Dust Cells

Alveolar Macrophages

Removal of pathogens and debris

Type 2 Cells

Produces Surfactant

Reduce surface tension

Prevents alveolar from collapsing

Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Disease of hyaline membrane

Surfactant should be produced at 7-8 months of fetal development

Premature infant has immature lungs (little/no surfactant produced)

Lungs collapse with each breath

1/3 of all infants dead due to R.D.S

Emphysema

Progressive Disease

Alveolar walls destroyed and capillaries narrow (constrict(

Reduced surface area for gas exchange

Elastic Fibers breakdown (exhaling takes energy)

100% of smokers over 40 years old have it

Lungs

Region that is housed within pleural cavity

Covered and lined by pleural membrane that secretes pleural fluid that seals membranes together

Right side has 3 lobes; Left side has 2 lobes due to heart

Costal surface enclosed by thorax

Lays on diaphragm

Cardiac notch

Mechanics of quiet breathing

Inspiration muscle (inhale) - external intercostal and diaphragm

Expiration (exhale) - passive proces

Controlled by the medulla oblongata and pons

Mechanics of breathing

Diaphragm and external intercostal contract

Thoracic cavity volume increases (pressure drops)

Pleural cavity volume increases (pressure drops)

Lung surface "pulled" out and down (lung volume increase)

Alveoli pressure drops below atm pressure

Air rushes in

Smoking

Lowered respiratory efficiency due to nicotine (constricts terminal bronchioles), carbon monoxide (binds to hemoglobin and reduced O2 carrying capacity), Irritants in smoke (increases mucus production, swelling of tissue lining); Long term use leads to breakdown of elastic fibers and collapse of bronchioles and emphysema

Function of Digestive System

To provide nutrients to all body cells

Ingestion - intake into mouth

Mechanical Digestion - breakdown of particles

Propulsion - moving food through tract

Chemical Digestion - breakdown of food by chemical reaction

Absorption - movement of particles in blood

Defecation - elimination of waste

Mastication

Chewing in mouth

Segmentation

Mixing food + fluid within digestive tract

Swallowing

Action is voluntary and involuntary in digestive system

Peristalsis

Waves of muscular contractor (moves food though digestive tract)

Tunica Mucosa

Mucus membrane; epithelia tissue; in contact with food running through lumen

Openings are dropping down leading to gastric glands

Muscularis Mucosa = underlines tunica mucosa and divides mucosa and submucosa

Tunica Submucosa

Connective tissue where blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics goes through

Submucosa plexus - network of nerves

Tunica Muscularis

Inner portion - circular muscle

Outer portion - longitudinal muscle

Myenteric plexus - in between circular and longitudinal muscle

Tunica Externa

Tunica Serosa (visceral peritoneum)

Tunica Adventitia (dry)

Mesenteries

Connective tissue for placement of organs

Allows path for blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics and bile ducts to run in between this area

Falciform Ligament

Suspends the liver from the diaphragm and anterior abdominal wall

Lesser Omentum

Suspends the stomach from the liver

Lesser curvature of stomach

Greater Omentum

Suspends from stomach

Lays like a fat apron over small intestine

Greater curvature of stomach

Mesentery Proper

Attached small intestine to back wall of abdominal cavity

Mesocolon

Attaches large intestine to back wall of abdominal cavity

Organs in Retroperitoneal Space

Suprarenal Glands

Aorta

Duodenum

Pancreas

Ureter

Ascending/Descending Colon

Kidney

Esophagus

Rectum

Mouth/Oral Cavity

Flexible lips and muscular cheeks hold food in

Uvula (on soft palate) helps guide food down pharynx

Muscular tongue moves food over teeth for mastication (teeth covered with enamel)

Esophagus

1 ft long muscular tube that moves food to stomach

Line with protective stratified squamous epithelia

uses peristalsis

Muscularis mucosae found in patches

Stomach

Function in protein digestion

Gastric glands secrete pepsin

pH around 2-3

Large about of mucus coats stomach to protect against self-destruction (alkaline mucus closer to the stomach)

3 muscle layer allow for strong contraction

Stomach absorbs water, electrolytes, some drugs (aspirin) an alcohol

Alcohol Dehydrogenase

Secreted by stomach to breakdown alcohol before it enters the body

Small Intestine

Broken up into 3 sections

Peyer's patches are found in submucosa

Intestinal glands found in mucosa

Villi are unique to area

Duodenum

10 inches long

Liver/pancreas secretes fluids into this segment

Enzyme "soups" with food

Brush-border enzymes break downs C/P/L

Dudodenal/Submucosal glands found here

Jejunum

8 inches long

Most nutrient absorption occurs here

Enlarged cilli and plicae for greater absorption

Ileum

12 inches long

Leads to colon

Ileocecel value

Increased Absorption within Small Intestine

Plicae, Villi and Microvilli aid with absorption

Plicae

Permanent ridges "corkscrew" along inner surface of intestine

Larger in jejunum

Villi

Finger-like projections along surface

Largest in jejunum, unique to small intestine

Have lacteal within to absorb fats

Capillaries absorb non-lipids nutrients

Microvilli

Small projections along surface of columnar cells = absorptive cells

Brush-broder enzymes attacked to BB

Large Intestine

5 feet long

Bacteria in colon produced by Vitamin K, some Vitamin B, and folic acic

Water and Vitamin absorption

Compactions

Defecation

Appendix attached to cecum

Leads to rectum

Taneia Coli

3 bands of longitudinal muscle on colon

Haustra

Outpockets on colon

Oral Cavity

Salivary glands produced saliva with salivary amylase

Chemical digestion of carbohydrates; Parotid salivary gland; Sub-lingual Gland; Sub-Mandibular Gland

Teeth

Incisors, Canines, Premolar, Molar

Incisors

Blade like and used for biting food

Canines

Pointed (enlarged in carnivorous mammals) and used for grabbing food

Premolar

Characteristics of canines and molars are used for shearing food

Molar

Flattened with multiple roots and used for grinding food, breaking down larger bites

Pancreas

Both endocrine and exocrine glands

Secretes strong pancreatic enzymes (xymogens) into duodenum

Bicarbonate neutralizes acids and stomach

Digests C/L/P

Pancreatitis

Pancreatic enzymes escape from ducts

Destruction of pancreatic cells

May be acute or chronic

Can be due to alcohol (sphincter muscle to construct/induce secretion)

Liver

Hepato-

Largest visceral organ

Largest blood reservoir

Functions to remove toxins form blood (stored, degraded or excreted), store and release glucose, produce most plasma proteins, produce bile salts

Gallbladder

Stores Bile salts

Helps breakdown (emulsify) fats in small intestine

Duct empties into duodenum

Hepatic Portal System

Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Vein, Hepatic Portal Vein ( coming from stomach and intestine and then into liver - lower O2, high nutrients/toxins)

Cirrhosis of Liver

Normal architecture of liver lobules is disorganized

Scarring of liver lobule

Liver artery and hepatic portal vein scarred

Impaired liver function (portal hypertension, fluid leakage abdomen, Gynecomastia, peripheral veins in abdominal wall, esophagus, rectum, anus

Function of Urinary System

Maintain homeostasis within the internal environment of body

Excretion (removal of organic metabolic waste)

Water balance

Electrolyte Balance (OH-, H+, Cl-, Na2+)

Conservation of valuable nutrients (glucose)

Control of blood cell formation - erythropoietin

Regulation of blood pressure - renin

External Structure of Kidney

Located at back of abdominal cavity (retroperitoneal)

Between T12 - L3

Right kidney lower and larger than left kidney

Fat and ribs help protect this side

Renal Fascia and fat anchors kidneys to back wall

Internal Structure of Kidney

Houses the functional unit called the nephron that filters, secretes and reabsorbs

Cortex - outer layer that contains renal columns and renal corpuscles

Medulla - inner layer that contains pyramids and filled with tubules

Ureters

Descends to urinary bladder

Moves urine by peristalsis and contains epithelia

Enters split like opening and is membrane covered

Kidney Stones

Hard to pass, composed of C2+, minerals and salts

Urethral Sphincters

Internal Urethral Sphincter (smooth muscles - involuntary)

External Urethra Sphincter (skeletal muscle - voluntary)

Urinary Bladder

Sits directly behind pubic bones

smooth muscles - detrusor muscle

Collapsable bag that holds 2 cups

Triangular region - trigone

Differences in Urethra

Male ; 7-8 inches, 3 regions

Female ; 1-2 inches, most likely to get cystitis (UTI)

Vascularization

Renal artery supplies oxygenated blood to kidney

Renal vein is most anterior

Loops through kidney until it reaches a capillary

Glomerulus

Filtration site for blood

Composed of about 50 loops of fenestrated capillaries

Filtrate moves into tubule systems called the Nephron

Nephron

Filtrates, absorbs and secretes

Cortical and Juxtamedullary

Renal Corpuscle

Glomerulus + Bowman's Capsule

Basement membrane of Glomerulus

Performs actual filtration

Can block by charge or size

Holds back larger molecules

Allows water, salt and sugar to pass

Podocytes

Involved with regulation of glomerular filtration rate

When contracted, filtration slit closed

Juxtaglomerulus Appartus

Regulates renal blood flow and glomerular filtration

Gonads

Reproductive Organs ; ovaries and testes

Gametes

Sex Cells ; eggs and sperm

Scrotum

Sac-like pouch located outside body cavity since healthy sperm needs to be 2 degrees lower than body temp

Cremaster Muscle

Adjusts distance of testes from body

Descent of Testes

Originate within abdominal wall (inguinal cavity)

Gubernaculum Tetest anchors testes to scrotum

as fetal growth continues, testes are drwan down, nerves, vessels and ducts follow