PSYCHOLOGYY

DO ITTTT

obedient, authority

The aim of Milgram was to investigate how __________ individuals would be to orders received from a person in *__________* (by testing if they would be obedient even when it would result in physical harm to another)

holocaust, dispositional, situational

The background of Milgram was based on the ________ , and that Milgram was born into a Jewish family, and he sought to challenge the hypothesis that Germans possessed defective personal traits making extreme obedience possible (*_____* argument)

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The _____ explanation offered by Milgram was that many people who found themselves in a similar situation would harm/kill others under the orders of authority figure.

laboratory, controlled, artificial, same

Milgram was a _____ experiment, and involved _____ observation, where the researcher watches/records participant behavior in an ______ setting.

Standardized: every participant went through the _____ procedure

volunteer, men, 50, newspaper, New Haven, occupations

The sample method for Milgram was a ____ sample, in which 40 *____* between the ages of 20 and _____ years old were recruited.

This was done through a _____ advertisement.

Participants came from the _____ area of the U.S. and came from a range of different backgrounds and ______.

authority, obedience

Milgram independent variable: degree of _______ exhibited by the experimenter

Milgram dependent variable: level of ______

4\.50, learner, teacher, stooge, shock, see, hear, increasing, 2, 15 volts, 450 volts, fake, teacher, 45 volts, learner, verbally, authority, maximum, debriefed

Procedure of Milgram:

After responding to the newspaper advertisement, each participant was given $ __ for their time. Each participant met another person (with Milgram) and decided by drawing straws who was a _______ and who was a teacher. The participant was always a _____. The learner was thus a ______.

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The teacher was **told** to read pairs of words in which the learner had to memorize and repeat those words. If the learner made a mistake, the teacher was **instructed** to _____ the learner. There was a wall between the teacher and the learner, so they could not _____ each other, but they could _____ each other.

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Shock voltage on machine was labelled in ______ order: ‘moderate shock’, to ‘danger: severe shock’ and for the final _____ switches ‘XXX’.

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For every mistake made, the teacher was **instructed** to increase the voltage by _____ until it reached the last level that was _______.

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These shocks were ______, but the **teacher was not aware** of this.

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Prior to the beginning of the experiment, the ___ was given a real shock of _____ as a demonstration to what a ______ felt.

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**No matter what, the teachers were ____** **told to continue by an** **______ figure, the experimenter.**

Please go on / Please continue / The experiment requires that you continue / It is absolutely essential that you continue / You have no other choice, you *must* go on”

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The procedure was considered to be complete when the teacher refused to give any more shocks, or when they had given the _______ voltage available.

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One-way mirrors were used to record the physical behaviors' of the participants, and observers noted any comments that were made. After the procedure was complete, each participant was ______.

They could meet the learner again to assure them they were okay.

convinced, 13.42, 14, tension, increased, 14, relief

The results of Milgram were that most participants were __________ that all aspects of the situation were real; that they were delivering electric shocks to another person which were extremely painful.

Mean estimate of the pain of the 450 V shock was _____ out of a maximum _______, meaning that participants were aware that they were causing serious pain.

The participants showed signs of _______ when undertaking the procedure. Observers reported signs of nervousness in participants, which _____ as they gave more powerful electric shocks. The participants were also frequently observed to be sweating, shaking and groaning, with _____ out of the 40 men showing signs of nervous laughter or smiling. One participant could not complete the experiment because he went into a violent seizure, presumably as a result of the high level of stress he was experiencing.

Comments made by the participants who protested at the orders given included *‘I don’t think I can go on with this…I don’t think this is very humane’, and ‘I’m gonna chicken out…I can’t do that to a man, I’ll hurt his heart’.*

Nonetheless, the verbal prods given by the experimenter were generally successful in persuading the participants to continue. After the procedures ended, the participants showed visible signs of ______, wiped their faces, sighed and shook their heads. A small minority of participants, however, did not show elevated levels of stress and appeared calm during the procedure.

obedient, stress, authority, harming

The conclusions of Milgram were that individuals are much more ________ to authority than we might reasonably expect. This seems to be true for the majority of people.

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Despite high levels of obedience, people find the experience of carrying out destructive acts under the orders of authority figures triggers feelings of *-*______. This is due to a conflict between two important social phenomena: the need to obey those in _______ and the need to avoid _______ other people.

bystander, type, race, behavior, size

The aim of Piliavin was to study _______ behavior in a natural setting. They also wanted to investigate the effect of four situational variables on helping behavior or ‘Good Samaritanism’:

• the ____ of victim

• the _____ of the victim

• the ______ of a ‘model’

• the _____ of the group of bystanders.

murder, 38, responsibility, more, more

The background of Piliavin was the ______ of Kitty Genovese in New York City in 1964. After returning from her work during the early hours of the morning, Miss Genovese was followed and assaulted by an assailant near her home.

One witness had called down to warn off her attacker as Miss Genovese screamed that she was being stabbed. Her attacker was scared off but returned to continue the assault. It was alleged in news reports of the time that around _____ individuals living nearby were either eye or ear witnesses to the crime, but failed to prevent her murder.

The explanation for this is known as the diffusion of ______ hypothesis (the _____ people who are present in an emergency, the less likely people are to help) Alternatively, if we witness those around us assisting or ‘modelling’ helping behavior, we may be _____ likely to imitate and engage in helping.

field, subway, independent

Piliavin was a _____ experiment (took place in a realistic environment; in this case, the New York City ______).

It can be described as using an _______ groups design, as the trials were repeated on **different days** and involved **different participants** in **each** condition.

passengers, 11, 3, opportunity, 4450, 45, 55, 43, critical

Piliavin took place on the New York subway.

Participants were ______ travelling on an underground service between Harlem and the Bronx weekdays between ____ a.m. and ____ p.m.

This is an _______ sample as they were not deliberately selected for participation. The total estimated number of participants was _____ people, of whom around ____% were black and _____% were white.

The mean number of passengers per carriage was ____, and the mean number of people in the ______ area (where the incident took place) was **8.5**.

type, race, close, distant, early, late, size, help

Piliavin has four independent variables (IVs) which corresponded to the factors outlined in the aims of the study. They were operationalized as:

• the _____ of victim: the levels were ‘drunk’ or ‘ill’ victim

• the _____ of the victim: the levels were black or white victim

• the behavior of a ‘model’: the levels were a model who was either_____ to or ______ from the victim helped, either ____ or _____ in the event

• the ______ of the group of bystanders: this level was the **naturally occurring number of passengers** present in the subway carriage.

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The dependent variable (DV) was the level of bystander_______.

In quantitative terms, this was operationalized as the **time** taken for the first passenger to help, as well as the **total** number of passengers who helped. The **race, gender and location** in the carriage of each helper were also recorded.

Qualitative data was recorded in the form of **verbal remarks** made by passengers during each incident.

four, two, two, adjacent, victim, model, 70, no, 3, 1, 38, 65, 70, 150, 70, 150, not

Procedure for Piliavin:

_____ teams of student researchers carried out the study, following a standard procedure. On each trial, _____ male and _____ female students boarded the train using different doors.

The female confederates sat in the area ______ to the immediate ‘critical’ area where the incident took place. They **observed** the passengers and **recorded** data during each trial.

The male confederates took the roles of the _____ and the_____. The victim stood at the pole in the **center** of the critical area, and the model **remained standing** throughout the trial.

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Each trial used the same route, because it included a **7.5 minute gap** between two stations. At approximately ____ seconds into the journey, the ‘victim’ staggered forward and collapsed. He remained lying on the floor looking upwards. If he received _____ help, the **model** would help him to his feet at the next stop.

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The victim was played by different males during the study, but all were made to look similar. They were **aged 26 to 35 years**; _____ were white and____ was black. They were dressed in identical, casual clothing (jacket, old trousers, no tie). On **_____ out of 103** trials the victim **smelled of alcohol** **and carried a bottle of alcoho**l wrapped in a brown bag. On the remaining _______trials they **appeared sober and carried a black cane**. In all other ways they behaved identically.

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The models were all **white males** aged **24** __**to**__ **29 years of age,** who were also **dressed informally**. When helping, the model **raised the victim to the sitting position** and s**tayed with him** until the train **reached the next stop.**

Trials were split into the following conditions:

• **Critical/early**: model stood in critical area and waited ____ seconds to help victim

**• Critical/late**: model stood in critical area and waited _____ seconds to help victim

**• Adjacent/early**: model stood in adjacent area and waited ____ seconds to help victim

**• Adjacent/late**: model stood in adjacent area and waited ____ seconds to help victim

**• No model condition**: the model did _____ help the victim until after the trial was over and the **train** **had reached the next stop**.

male, 80, 60, cane, drunk, 62, 19, spontaneous, less, 70, 20, drunk, raises, disgust

The results for Piliavin were that the majority of the helpers were ______. Nearly ____% of victims received **spontaneous help** (i.e. helped before model intervened or in a no-model condition), and in around _____% of cases **more than one person** helped.

In terms of the type of victim, participants were more likely to help the victim with the _____ than the ____ victim (the cane victim received help in _____/65 trials; the drunk victim received help in __/38 trials). In the cane trials, _______ helping also occurred **earlier** than in the drunk trials.

In terms of race, both black and white cane victims were **equally likely** to receive help. However, there was some minor evidence of same-race helping in the **drunk condition**, with participants being **more** willing to offer help to those of their **own race**. In the drunk condition, black victims were found to receive _____ help overall.

It appeared that early model intervention at ______ seconds was **slightly more likely** to result in helping behavior than waiting until 150 seconds had passed.

This research found **no evidence** to support the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis. In fact, there was some evidence to suggest that when more passengers were present, rates of helping were also **slightly higher**. This is because in seven-person groups the responsibility should be diffused between more individuals. In fact, **natural seven-person groups were faster to respond than predicted, and faster to respond than the three-person groups.** This directly opposes the prediction of diffusion of responsibility.

Observers noted that in around __% of trials, passengers actually **moved away from the critical area** where the incident was taking place. There were a **higher number of comments** made during trials without helping. There were also more comments made during trials with a _____ victim.

Piliavin proposed an alternative explanation for their findings, known as the **‘cost–benefit model’**. They suggest that witnessing an emergency _____ an individual’s level of arousal. They may either become more likely to feel **disgust and aversion**, or even **sympathy and courage**. This heightened arousal level **prompts individuals to act,** in order to **reduce** difficult feelings.

Potential responses include helping **directly or indirectly** (asking others to help). Individuals may alternatively **leave the area** where the incident is taking place or determine the victim **should not be helped**. This final response is evidenced in comments by passengers who expressed ____ or dismissal at the drunk victim’s collapse.

many, group, cane, gender, race, drunk, less, coping

The conclusions of Piliavin are that in a natural setting, ____ people would offer spontaneous help to a stranger, even in a ____ situation. This study found **no evidence** of diffusion of responsibility, but did identify several factors which may determine decisions to help:

• the type of victim (someone using a ____ will be helped more than a drunk person)

• the ______ of the helper (men are more likely to help than women)

• people may be more likely to help members of their own ______,__ especially if the victim is _____

• the longer an emergency continues, the _____ likely it is that anyone will help, and the more likely it is they will find another way of ____ with arousal.

helping, conspecifics, respond, targeted

The aim of Yamamoto was to learn more about _____ behavior in chimpanzees. Specifically, the researchers wanted to find out:

• whether chimpanzees can understand the needs of _______

• whether chimpanzees can _______ to those needs with _______ helping

helping, conspecifics, request, theory of mind, needs, primates

The background of Yamamoto is that in order to maintain cooperative societies, humans engage extensively in ______ behaviors. Other animals engage in helping, but more often at the request of their . In other words, they may not help voluntarily but rather at the direct _____ of others. The ability to offer targeted help to members of our own species relies on an understanding of their goals, which is linked to ‘___________’ (ToM) ability.

ToM refers to our capacity to understand the intentions and ______ of others. Some people believe that ToM is unique to humans, and can explain why they are the only species to demonstrate altruistic helping. However, some recent studies have shown that some ________ have the capacity for helping and food sharing, without direct benefit to themselves.

One explanation for conspecific animal helping is known as targeted or instrumental helping. It is a cognitive explanation for social behavior; where the type of care or help given is based on a cognitive understanding of the need or situation of others. There is some evidence to suggest that **chimpanzees** can engage in targeted helping following **direct requests**, but little is known about whether they have any ability to interpret the needs of conspecifics.

laboratory, artificial, adjacent, repeated

Yamamoto was a _______ experiment. It took place in an ______ environment where the chimpanzees were seated at _______experimental booths.

The study used a ________ measures design, which means that all the chimpanzees took part in **both conditions** of the experiment.

targeted, two, able, not, targeted, items

Yamamoto independent variable: the **ability** of the chimpanzee to give _____ helping to **another** chimpanzee. There were _____ conditions: In the first, the potential helper chimpanzee was _____ to see the other’s tool use situation, in the second they could _____ see.

Yamamoto dependent variable: _____ helping behavior (the______ **offered** by the participants to conspecifics. The item offered was either the correct tool or an incorrect non-tool item.)

five, cognitive, helping, mother and child

The sample for Yamamoto was _____ chimpanzee participants who were **socially housed** within the **Primate Research Institute at Kyoto University**. Each had previously been a part of a number of other perceptual and _____ studies, including some investigating _____ behavior in a similar setting to the present study. In each trial, the chimpanzee participants were paired in ________ pairs. This was because each pair had **already** demonstrated frequent **tool-giving interactions** in previous experiments. Also, they were **familiar** with the **tool-use tasks** used in this study.

experimental, conspecific, help, solve, reward, seven, helper, not, requested, familiarization, same, can see, transparent, cannot see, opaque, can see, confirm, targeted, order, 48, 24 stick use, 24 straw use, 5, held out, first, 2, 4, cannot

The procedure for Yamamoto was that the experimenters designed the ________ task in order to examine the **ability and flexibility** of chimpanzees to help a _____, depending on their **need**. A chimpanzee had to select a tool that would ______ the other chimpanzee to _____ a problem. One task required a **stick** and the other required a **straw**. Solving the task allowed the second chimpanzee in the pair to obtain a ______: a **juice drink**. _____ objects (**including** a stick and a straw) were placed in a booth occupied by a potential __*.*__ This could be reached by the potential recipient but could be _______ by the chimpanzee **poking his or her arm through a hole to gesture.** This allowed the experimenters to examine whether the potential helper chimpanzee was **able to understand** what the other needed. Before any trials started, the chimpanzees went through a __________ phase each day where they could **examine and manipulate** all the objects **without** the need to use them as tools or offer them to others.

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When the experimental trials began, each chimpanzee experienced the conditions in the_____ order. **Firstly** they were placed in the ‘____’ booth in which the panel between the two chimpanzees was . **Next** they completed the task in the ‘’ booth, in which the panel was . Finally the ‘’ condition was **repeated** in order to _____ that any **difference** in object choice between the **first two conditions** was due to intentional, _____ helping and **not** an ______ effect.

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______ trials were carried out in **each** condition; this consisted of a **random order** of ______ and ___ situations. Trials **began** when the tray of objects was **presented**. The trial **ended** when the recipient **received** the object and **succeeded in obtaining the juice reward** or after ___ **minutes had elapsed without an object being passed**. ‘Offers’ were **counted** when the chimpanzee ____ the object to the recipient, whether the recipient **took the object or not**. Only the____ offer of help was counted; subsequent offers of different items were **not** included in the data. Between _____ and ____ trials were conducted **per day**.

targeted, 91, requests, 5, all, tools, correct, 96, request, Pan, removed, significant, cannot, Ayumu, observe, see, request, not, can, 3, can, 98, 80, situation, targeted, could

The results for Yamamoto were that the experimenters found that chimpanzees are **capable** of flexible _____ helping based on an **understanding** of the **other’s goals**. In the ‘**can see**’ condition, objects were offered in ___% of trials, and this mostly occurred following _____ from the **paired** chimpanzee. This can be compared to the **pre-test familiarization** trials, where ‘offering’ occurred in only around _____% of trials.

Apart from **one individu**al, ____ chimpanzees first offered___(stick or straw) on **significantly more** occasions than **non-tool objects**. In addition, the chimpanzees selected the ________ tool (stick or straw) to offer their partner over a **significant** number of trials.

In the **‘cannot see’** condition, at least **one** object was offered in___% of trials. Again, offering occurred mostly at the ____ of the paired conspecific. Like the **first** condition, **all but one** chimpanzee first offered a potential tool **significantly more** often than non-tools. This chimpanzee, ‘ ___’, mainly offered the **brush** item at first. When this item was ______from her tray, she made appropriate tool offers similar to the other chimpanzees.

An important difference was observed between **‘can’ and ‘cannot see**’ conditions: in the ‘can see’ condition, there was a_____ difference in **which tool** (stick or straw) was offered, depending on the **task requirement**. In the **‘______ see’** condition there was **no** significant difference in which tool was offered in all but **one** of the chimpanzees. The one chimpanzee named ______ who did select the correct tool more often was able to **stand and peer through a hole** in the wall. He did so in order to view his partner chimpanzee (his mother) and _____ the task that she was facing.

The results suggest that the chimpanzees were only able to understand their partner’s goals when able to ____ the task themselves. The partner chimpanzees performed ______ actions with similar method and frequency in both conditions; this behavior did ______ communicate information regarding specific needs.

The third trial, a repeat of the ‘_____ see’ condition, was undertaken with ___ chimpanzees who had **previously shown a significant difference** in tool selection in the ‘____ see’ condition and a **non-significant difference** in the ‘____ see’ condition. Object offer was observed in ___% of trials; offer upon request accounted for around ___%. There was a **significant difference** in offer of stick or straw, depending on the partner chimpanzee’s _____. This confirms flexible ____ helping with an **understanding** of the tool **needed** to **complete** the task, when the chimpanzees _____ see the task for themselves.

needs, solving, will, response, visual, targeted

The conclusions of Yamamoto are that chimpanzees can understand the ____ of conspecifics in order to help them in successfully ______ tasks.

• They ____offer help to conspecifics who require it in the **majority of cases**, but usually as a ______to a **direct request** rather than as a **spontaneous act.**

• Chimpanzees rely on ____ confirmation of conspecifics’ **needs** in order to offer_______ helping

doodling, memory

The aim of Andrade was to know whether _______ assisted **information processing**, perhaps by enabling people to attend more effectively or by enhancing their ______.

less, concentration, working memory, same, arousal, attention, unrelated, raising

The background of Andrade was that research has shown that we perform _____ well when our attention is **divided** between tasks (such as when doodling during instruction). Previous studies have demonstrated that doodling may aid __________ by **reducing daydreaming** so you stay focused.

This idea is based on the _____________ model, suggesting that **two different** types of current or ‘working’ memory can be used at the ______time, one is **vis spatial** and the other **auditory**. These are governed by an overall ‘central executive’.

**Daydreaming** is linked to high _____ when we are bored and it uses important **cognitive processing resources** (the ‘central executive’) so it **inhibits** performance on tasks that use this resource – including ________ **and memory.**

Andrade defines doodling as the **sketching of patterns and figures** that are ______ to the primary task. Such doodling either could take cognitive resources **away** from the intended (primary) task due to a **simultaneous demand** on cognition by **dividing attention**, or it could **improve** performance by ______ arousal and **enhancing** focused attention on the primary task.

laboratory, controlled, independent

Andrade was a _____ experiment; the environment was **not** the normal place in which people would respond to telephone messages and the situation was ______. The design was __________ measures as participants were **either** in the **control group** or in the **doodling group.**

doodled, party, places

Andrade independent variable: whether they **either** _______ or did **not** doodle

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Andrade dependent variable: names recalled of **____-goers**, and the names recalled of the _________ (**unexpected** test)

40, cognitive, 18-55, 20, females, 2, 3

The sample for Andrade was ____ members of a participant panel at the **Medical Research Council unit** for _____research. The panel was made up of members of the **general population** aged _____years and they were **paid a small sum** for participation. There were ____participants in each group, mainly _____, with __ males in the **control group** and ______ in the **doodling group** (**one** participant in this condition did **not doodle** and was **replaced**).

all, control, names, monitoring, places, recall, counterbalanced, mishearings, not, ignored, minus, 2.5, 227, 8, 3, 8, standardized, A4, shade, lined, misleading

The procedure for Andrade was _____ participants listened to a **dull** (mock) telephone call about a party.

While listening, they either **doodled or did not doodle** (the ___ group). They were told **beforehand** they would be tested only on the ____ of **people** **attending the party**. This was the “task. They also had an **unexpected** test, on the names of mentioned. This was the ‘’ task. The order of these tests was_____, such that **half** the participants were asked to recall the names then the places mentioned. The other half recalled the places first, then the names. To operationalize the DVs, **plausible** _______, were counted as **correct**. Other names that were on the tape but were party-goers were scored as **false alarms**. Other words relating to people, such as ‘sister’, were. The **final score** for monitoring was the number of **correct names** ______ **false alarms**.

The mock telephone message lasted ___ minutes and was recorded in a **monotonou**s voice at an average speed of ____ words per minute. It had __ names of **people attending a party**, and the names of___ **people and one cat who could not attend**. _____ **places** were mentioned, as well as irrelevant details.

The participants were given _______ instructions, and an ___ **sheet** was given to the participants in the **doodling** condition, with **alternating rows of squares and circles, ten per row**. There was also a **wide margin on the left for recording the target information**. These participants were also given a pencil and asked to ___ in the squares and circles while listening to the tape. The **control** participants were given a sheet of_____ paper to write their answers on.

Each participant listened to the tape at a **comfortable volume** and wrote down the names as instructed. The experimenter collected the response sheets, then **talked to the participants for one minute**, including an apology for _________ them about the memory test. They then completed the **surprise** test of recalling names of places then people or vice versa.

36\.3, 3-110, 0, 7.1, 1.1, 5, 7.8, 0.4, 1, 7.5, 29, 5.8

The results for Andrade were that In the **doodling condition**, the mean number of **shaded shapes on the printed sheet** was _____, with a **range** of ______ and _____ participants in the control condition doodled spontaneously.

Participants in the **control group** correctly recalled a mean of ______ (SD______) of the **eight party-goers’ names** and ___ people made a **false alarm**. Participants in the **doodling group** correctly recalled a mean of____ (SD ___) **party-goers’ names** and _____ person made a **false alarm**.

Overall, the doodling participants recalled a mean of ____ **names and places**, % more than the mean of_____ for the **control group**.

concentration, attention, memory

The conclusion of Andrade was that doodling helps__________ on a primary task as the **doodling participants performed better** than participants just listening to the primary task with no concurrent task.

However, because the **doodling group** were better on **both the monitored and incidental information** there are two possible explanations. Either the doodlers noticed more of the target words, an effect on ____, or doodling improved ______ directly.

impaired, association, without

The aim of Baron-Cohen was to test whether a group of adults with **Asperger Syndrome (AS)** or **High-functioning Autism (HFA)** would be _____ on the **revised** version of the **‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’** task. The researchers also wanted to test if there was an ________ between performance on the revised ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task and **measures of autistic traits**, and to investigate if there were **sex differences** in **those _______ autism** on this task.

social, realize, revise, reliability

The background of Baron-Cohen is that autism is a failure to develop particular **cognitive processes** linked to _____interaction that occurs in approximately 1% of the population. Baron-Cohen suggests that people with autism **lack or have an underdeveloped** cognitive process called a **‘theory of mind’**. A theory of mind is a cognitive ability enabling us to _______ that others have **different feelings, beliefs, knowledge and desires** **from our own**.

**Baron-Cohen did a previous test in 1997, but it was too easy and many participants were getting top scores due to a small number of examples. In addition, some of the vocabulary was too complex and participants may not have understood it.**

The following 2001 study attempted to ____the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ task as a measure of the theory of mind and aims to check the _______ of the results from the previous 1997 study.

laboratory, standardized, quasi, autism, independent

Baron-Cohen was a ______ experiment as the environment in which the participants were tested was **not comparable** to an everyday situation. It was a highly _________ procedure and all participants were exposed to the **same** photographs, chosen using a **pilot study**.

This is an example of a **natural or _____-experiment**, where participants are usually assigned to a condition based on a **given** characteristic. Here, whether they have ______.

This experiment is an example of an ________ groups design as participants only took part in **one of the four groups.**

type, 2-4, experimental, 1, score, AQ, IQ

Baron-Cohen independent variable: the____ __of__ participant in each condition. There were **three control or comparison groups** in this study **(Groups ____)** and the _____ group containing participants with **AS or HFA** (Group ___).

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Baron-Cohen dependent variable: ____ on the revised ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task’ (Eyes Task). For those participants in the **AS/HFA and the IQ matched control** condition, there was also the measure of their scores on an____ test. Baron-Cohen et al. also measured the _____ scores of participants in the **AS/HFA condition and the IQ matched comparison group.**

15, 115, 29.7, self selecting, adult, selected, 46.5, student, 20.8, not, IQ, 14, 28, 116, randomly

The sample of Baron-Cohen was divided into **4 groups**.

Group 1: **AS/HFA**. The group comprised ______ **adult males** with AS or HFA with a mean IQ score of____ and mean age of_____ years. The sample was ________ through **adverts in the Autistic Society magazine and support groups** and all had been diagnosed in specialist centers.

Group 2: **___** **comparison group**. The group comprised **‘normal’ adults**, who did **not** have a diagnosis of AS/HFA. They were ____ from **adult community and education classes** in Exeter and **public library users** in Cambridge with a mean age of ______ years.

Group 3: **___ comparison group**. The group comprised **‘normal’ students**, who did **not** have a diagnosis of AS/HFA, from **Cambridge University** with a mean age of___ years. Cambridge is a **highly selective university** so these students are _____ representative of the general population.

Group 4: **___** **matched group**. The group comprised ____ IQ matched participants with those in the **AS/HFA group** with a mean age of ___years and mean IQ score of ___. These participants were______ selected from the **general population**.

36, 18, 4, 5, 2, sex, AQ, glossary, consented, aware, anonymized

The procedure of Baron-Cohen consisted of ____ sets of eyes (____ **male, 18 female**), each with ____ **choices of emotion** on the face of the target in the revised task.

For each set of eyes, the **target and foil words** were developed using groups of **eight judges**. At least ___ of the judges had to agree that the target word was the **most appropriate** for the eyes and **no more** than___ of the judges could select any of the **foil words**.

Participants in **all four groups** were tested on the revised Eyes Test and participants in the **AS/HFA group** were also asked to judge the____ of the target in each photo.

Participants in all conditions **except** the **‘normal’ adult comparison** were also asked to complete the ____ test.

Each participant read through a **______** throughout the experiment to ensure they knew each word’s meaning.

Each participant was given a **practice item** and then presented with the 36 sets of eyes and four possible target words for the emotion shown. Participants were **allowed as long as they needed** on each set of eyes. Considering the ethics of the research, all participants ____ to take part in the study and were ____ of the nature of the research.

They _______ the data that was collected so that it was not possible to identify any individual from their scores.

fewer, 21.9, 26.2, 28.0, 30.9, 33, higher, 34.4, 18.3, 18.9, -0.53, decreases

The results of Baron-Cohen were that on the Eyes Test, participants with **AS/HFA (Group 1)** correctly identified significantly ______ target words than participants in the three comparison groups.

Group 1 mean score: ____

Group 2 mean score:____

Group 3 mean score: ____

Group 4 mean score: ____

**No participant** in any of the conditions checked the glossary for **more than two definitions** during the experiment. In the Adult comparison (Group 2) and Student comparison (Group 3), **sex differences** were apparent between males and females on the Eyes Test but this was not significant.

**All** participants in the **AS/HFA** condition scored ____ or above **out of 36** on the **sex recognition** task.

On the **AQ task**, participants with **AS/HFA** scored significantly ____ than the student comparison and IQ matched comparison groups. There was a **significant difference** between male and female AQ scores in the student comparison group.

Group 1 mean score: _____

Group 3 mean score: _____

Group 4 mean score: _____

There was a **significant negative correlation** between the **AQ and Eyes Task** scores (____) but **no correlation** between the **IQ and Revised Eyes Test scores.** This suggests that as a participant’s AQ score increases, their ability to correctly identify the correct target word on the Eyes Test ______.

lack, more

The conclusions of Baron-Cohen were that the results suggest that the participants with **AS or HFA** have a _____ of a theory of mind, or ability to attribute emotions to another person, making it **strongly linked** to autism spectrum disorders.

There was evidence of a sex difference between males and females in the comparison groups; with **males showing ____ autistic traits and performing** **worse on the Eyes Test than females**. However, some of these differences were **not significant** (further research needed).

distorted, avoiding, positive

The background of Laney is that memory is **not** always a factual recording of an event and can become______ by other information both **during encoding and after the event**.

Previous experiments have shown that that memories can be **distorted** by information provided following an event. For example, false memories about an illness resulted in participants _____ certain foods.

They wanted to investigate if implanting **______ false beliefs and memories** about **liking asparagus as a child** would lead to **positive consequences** for their participants.

false feedback, false

The aim of Laney (experiment 1) was to investigate whether giving ___________ suggesting that a participant had **loved to eat asparagus as a child** would generate a _____ **belief or memory** of experiences linked to **eating and enjoying asparagus.**

laboratory, menu, 8, independent, love

Laney (experiment 1) was a ______ experiment as the environment the participants were tested in was **very artificial** and unlike an everyday event, **although some small attempts to make one questionnaire look like a ____** **were taken.** Participants were tested in laboratory settings in groups of up to______ people.

This experiment is an example of an _____ groups design as participants only took part in **one of the two** conditions: the **‘______’ condition or the control group.**

false belief, embedded, no, 5

Laney (experiment 1) variables:

Independent variable: whether a participant had the ____ that they had **enjoyed asparagus as a child**______. They were compared with a **control group** of participants who received ____ false belief.

\
Dependent variable: measured through the use of **_____questionnaires**

128, course credit, 99, 29, 20.8, 63, 65

The sample of Laney (experiment 1) was ____ **undergraduate students** at the University of California who **received _______** for their time. The sample consisted of_____ females and _____ males who had a mean age of_____ years old. The participants were **randomly** assigned to either the **‘love’ condition (_____)** or the **control group (_____).**

8, 1, FHI, RQ, distraction, 24, 10, 32, 5, randomly, love, questions, changes, 62, 21, memory, 3, love, lacked, debriefed

The procedure of Laney (experiment 1) begun when they arrived at the laboratory in groups of up to _____ and were told that they were going to take part in a study of ‘food preferences and personality’. (deception)

During the first session (week __), all participants were treated identically. Participants first completed the ____ and ___. The researchers also asked participants to complete three other questionnaires, as a _______ to the true aim.

• Food History Inventory (FHI) where respondents rated___ items on a scale of 1 (definitely did not happen) to 8 (definitely did happen) as to their food experiences before the age of ____

• Restaurant Questionnaire (RQ) which assessed the respondents’ desire to eat each of ___ separate dishes. This questionnaire was designed to look like a menu with _____ ‘courses’. Respondents were asked to imagine they were out for a special dinner and to rate, regardless of price, how likely they would be to order each food on a scale of 1 (definitely no) to 8 (definitely yes).

Approximately one week later participants were invited back to the laboratory. At this point participants were _______ allocated to the ‘love asparagus’ condition or the control group. All participants were told that their responses had been processed by a computer which had generated a profile of their early childhood experiences with food and were given a report that of foods that they enjoyed/disliked.

The critical item, ‘you loved to eat cooked asparagus’, was embedded in the profile for participants in the ‘___’ condition. Those in the control group did not get the critical item. Participants were then asked _______about this fake profile to ensure that they had processed the feedback.

Following this, participants completed the FHI and the RQ again to measure any _____ in responses. Further to these, participants also completed three further questionnaires: FPQ, FCQ and MBQ.

• Food Preferences Questionnaire (FPQ) was a _____ item inventory of items of food that respondents had to rate on a 1 (definitely don’t like to eat) to 8 (definitely like to eat).

• Food Costs Questionnaire (FCQ) was a list of _____ different food items with multiple choice answers where respondents had to circle the price they would be willing to pay for each, including a ‘would never buy’ option. For asparagus, the price options were $1.90, $2.50, $3.20, $3.80, $4.40, $5.00 and $5.70.

• Memory or Belief? Questionnaire (MBQ) – respondents were asked to indicate whether they had a ________ of an experience with _____ items from the FHI including (for the “_____‘’ condition) the critical item of asparagus. The choices were that they had specific memory of the event occurring, a belief that the event had occurred (but _____ specific memory), or were positive that the event had not occurred.

When participants had completed these questionnaires they were fully ______ by the researchers and told the true nature of the experiment.

46, 51, 1.5, 1.5, 4.1, 1.7, 57, 26, 22, 10, 35, 16, 39, 20, 12, 6, 27, 14, 43, 20, 61, 31, low, increased, positive, 48, 4.5, 0.9, more, 3.84, 6.14, 14, none

Results of Laney (experiment 1):

**31 participants were excluded** from this analysis as they initially believed they loved asparagus the first time, or scored greater than five on the FHI the first time. This left **97** participants to be included in the analysis. ___ in the ‘love’ condition and _____ in the control.

FHI ratings for ‘love’ condition in week 1: _____

FHI ratings for control in week 1: _____

FHI ratings for ‘love’ condition in week 2: ____

FHI ratings for control in week 2:_____

For the purpose of this study, memories are when the **participant ‘remembers’ an experience with detai**l. Beliefs are when the **participant ‘knows’ it happened but cannot go into specific detail.**

MBQ ratings for ‘love’ condition:____ % (_______) total, __ % ( _____) for M and _____% (__ _____) for B

MBQ ratings for control: __*% (*__ ) total, __% (____) for M and__ _______% (________) for B

In the ‘love’ condition, __*% (*__ ) stated they did not love asparagus the first time they tried it. In the control this was __% (___).

**This suggests that those participants who were told that they loved asparagus when they first tried it had a greater chance of generating a false memory or belief to substantiate this false memory**.

To be classified as a **believer**, participants had to be given a ___ rating on the **FHI** in **week one**, which ____ during **week two**. They also had to be given _____ ‘memory’ or ‘belief’ response on the **MBQ**.

___ percent (**22**) of participants in the ‘**love**’ condition met the criteria to be labelled **believers**. The ratings of these 22 believers increased an average of ___ points from week one to week two on their FHI item. Nonbelievers increased an average of just ____ points. Of the 22 participants classified as believers, **10 claimed to have an asparagus ‘memory’** and **12 claimed a ‘belief’ on the MBQ.**

To assess the consequence of false beliefs, the believers were **compared with those in the control group.**

On the **RQ**, believers reported ___ desire to eat the critical asparagus item than those in the control group. On the FPQ, in comparison to the control group (mean __), believers (mean ____) reported liking asparagus **significantly more**.

Finally, on the **FCQ**, believers were willing to pay **significantly more** for asparagus than those in the **control group** with **over a quarter (__)** of those in the control group stating that they would never buy asparagus.

____of the believers selected the never buy response.

false, increased,

The conclusions of Laney (experiment 1) were that participants can be led to develop **positively** **framed** ____ beliefs which can have a consequence on **behavior and food preferences**.

Participants who had the false belief implanted ______ their rating of their love of asparagus and these beliefs had further impacts on how much they would be willing to **spend on asparagus**, **greater intention to eat asparagus in the future, and a greater preference for it.**

mechanisms, appealing, replicate, reliability

The aim of Laney (experiment 2) was to examine the possible underlying _______ of the false memory consequence effect by exploring if, **after the false love of asparagus manipulation**, the **very sight** of asparagus was more ________ to participants.

A **secondary aim** was to _____ and extend the results of the **first experiment** to check the ______of the findings.

laboratory, independent, love

Laney (experiment 2) was a ________ experiment.

This experiment is also an example of an ________ groups design as participants only took part in **one of the two** conditions: the **‘_____’ condition** or the **control group**.

false, 4, 20

Laney (experiment 2) variables:

Independent variable: whether the participant had the ______ belief, *‘you loved asparagus*’, **embedded**. These participants were compared with a **control group** of participants who received **no** false belief.

\
Dependent variable: measured through the use of___ questionnaires and the **participant’s feedback** to a slideshow of ___ pictures of **common foods**

103, course credit, 64, 39, 19.9, randomly, 58, 45

The sample for Laney (experiment 2) was _______ **undergraduate students** at the University of Washington who received _____ for their time. The sample consisted of ____females and____ males who had a mean age of _____ years.

The participants were ______ assigned to either the **‘love’ condition (___)** or the **control group (_____).**

deception, 40, 33, profile, love, no, nothing, all, 20, 30, appetizing, disgusting, artistic, expert, second, debriefed

The procedure for Laney (experiment 2) begun when participants arrived at the laboratory and were told that they were going to complete **several questionnaires** to generate a personal profile of eating experiences. There was no ________ for this experiment. All participants first completed the **FHI, the RQ and the FPQ**. Participants also completed **two distractor questionnaires.**

\~One week later participants were invited back to the laboratory. At this point participants were **randomly allocated** to the ‘love’ asparagus condition or the control group. ____ were in the **‘love’ condition**, and ___ in the **control**. **All** **participants were told that their responses from the first week had been processed by a computer which had generated a ______ of their expected early childhood experiences with food**.

Participants in the **‘___**__**’**__ **condition** were given a profile that contained the critical phrase ***‘you loved asparagus the first time you ate it’*** included. After reading the profile, participants then completed an **elaboration exercise** in which they were required to give details about their **memory of eating asparagus**___, or if they had ___ memory of it, what might have happened.

Those allocated to the **control group** were told ______ about asparagus and did **not** complete the elaboration exercise.

_____ participants were then asked: **what is the most important childhood, food-related event in your life that your food profile did not report?**

A slideshow of___ color photographs of common foods were displayed for _____ seconds each to all participants. Participants were asked four questions about each slide. On a scale of **1 (not at all) to 8 (very much)**:

• how ______ they found the food depicted in the photo

• how ________ they found the food depicted in the photo

• the _____ quality of the photo

• whether the photo was taken by a **novice, amateur or ______** photographer.

Participants finally completed the **RQ, FPQ, and the FHI** for a _____ time, and the same **MBQ** in the first experiment.

When all questionnaires were completed, the participants were fully ________.

1\.7, 4.2, 1.5, 2.5, 30, 12, 57, 22, 28, 11, 28, 11, 39, 6, 2, 38, 12, 45, 18, 56, 18, 40, compared, increased, greater, more, 5.10, 4.00, 1.81, 3.24

The results for Laney (experiment 2) show that on the FHI, mean rating in the **‘love’ condition** for loving asparagus the first time they tried it was ____ compared to **week 2** where it was ____. For the **control group**, in week 1 it was ______ compared to **week 2** where it was ______.

Excluded from this analysis were _____ participants (____ ‘love’ **group** subjects and ______ controls) who were reasonably sure that **they had loved asparagus the first time they tried it** before the manipulation **(with a rating of five or higher on the FHI)**

On the MBQ,_______ % *(* ______ ) in the ‘love’ condition reported having a specific memory or belief of liking asparagus the first time they tried it (_____% ( _______) M, ____% ( ______ ) B).

__% in the control reported having a memory of belief (_____% ( _____ ) M, __% (______) B)

_______% (__ _____) in the ‘love’ condition and______ % (______) in the control reported that this was **not the case**.

____ participants in the ‘**love’ condition** met the criteria to be labelled **believers**. The believers were then ______ with those participants in the control group

On the **RQ**, **neither** the believers nor the control group reported an ____ desire to eat the critical asparagus item when comparing the two weeks. On the **FPQ**, in comparison to the control group, believers reported a significantly ____ desire to eat asparagus. Finally, on the photograph ratings, believers rated the asparagus photo as ___ **appetizing** than those in the control group (______versus______), and as less disgusting (____ versus _____).

false, more

The conclusions of Laney (experiment 2) were that participants **can** be given **positive**______ food beliefs and these beliefs have **consequences** **on behaviors and attitudes towards foods.**

Those participants who believed the false feedback were ______ likely than those in the control group to **rate a photograph of asparagus as more appetizing and less disgusting.**

aggression, absence, sex, imitated, non aggression, sex, aggression

The aim of Bandura was to investigate whether a child would learn ___________ by observing a **model** and would **reproduce** this behavior in the _________of the model, and whether the ________ of the role model was important.

\
**4 hypothesis:**

**observed aggression** will be _______

observed ____________ will be imitated

more likely to copy same _______ models

**boys** more prone to _______ than girls

facilitation, independently, absence, same, gender

The background of Bandura is that ‘ _________ ’ of behavior makes it more likely that **a child will do what others are doing around them**. Alternatively, the **observation of a behavior** could lead the child to acquire a new response to reproduce __________ . If this is the case, the new behavior should generalize to new settings and so would be produced in the ___________of an adult model.

If this imitative learning occurred, it could arise in response to observing either **aggressive** or **non-aggressive** behavior.

Bandura also suggested that children would be more likely to imitate ________sex models and they should differ in the readiness to imitate aggression because of what is traditionally seen as__________ -acceptable behavior **(ex. boys being more aggressive which is seen as masculine behavior)**

laboratory, controlled, independent, aggression, threes

Bandura was a _________experiment, the environment was **not the normal place where the children played** and the situation was _________.

The design of the experiment was that of ______________ measures as **different children** were used in **each** of the levels of the independent variables (IVs) (although these children were matched for ___________ in _________)

aggressive, no, different, child, learning, observation

Bandura independent variables:

• **model type**: whether the child saw an________ **model, non-aggressive model or _____ model**

• **model gender**: same gender as child, or_________ gender

• **learner gender**: whether the ________ was a **boy or a girl**

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Bandura dependent variable: the __________ the child displayed. This was measured through a **controlled** ___________ of the children and measures of **aggressive behavior** were recorded.

72, 36, 36

The sample of Bandura was _________ children aged **three to six years** (______ boys and _______ girls) were obtained from **Stanford University nursery school**.

observed, 5, verbal, inhibition, 3, 0.89, 12, 12, equally, sex, observation, model, nonaggressive, 10, 1, attacked, half, control, 20, nonaggressive, 240, physical, punching, verbal, non aggressive, bobo doll, without, aggressive, non imitative, other, remarks, unaware, reliability, 0.9

The procedure of Bandura begun when the children were__________ in their nursery school prior to the experiment. They were rated on four ___-point scales measuring physical aggression, _________aggression, aggression to inanimate objects and aggression ___________ (anxiety). They were then assigned to __________ groups to match their aggression levels. Of the 51 children rated by both observers (the rest were rated by only one observer), there was ‘inter-rater reliability’, which showed a high correlation between the observers, of r =_______

________ boys and_________ girls were allocated to control groups who saw no model. The remaining children were divided _________ by sex between aggressive and non-aggressive model groups and within those, between same and opposite-_________ models.

The experimental procedure started with all participants being deliberately mildly annoyed:

Each individual child was shown to a room with toys but after about two minutes of play, they were told that these were the best toys that are kept for other children. The experimenter and child then moved to the _____________ room, where the experimenter showed the child to a table and chair in their ‘play area’, where they were shown how to make potato prints and sticker pictures. The opposite corner of the room also contained a table and chair, a Tinkertoy set, a mallet and a five foot Bobo doll. This is where the _________sat in applicable conditions. The experimenter remained in the room and appeared to be working quietly at their desk.

The three groups were then treated differently.

• In the ___________ condition, the model assembled the Tinkertoys for _______ minutes.

• In the aggressive condition this lasted only _______ minute after which the model ________ the Bobo doll. This sequence was performed three times over nine minutes accompanied by aggressive comments such as ‘Kick him’ and two non-aggressive comments such as ‘He sure is a tough fella’. Of children in the model groups, _______ saw a same-sex model, the others saw a model of the opposite sex.

• A ________ group did not see any model, and therefore saw no aggression.

A test of the child’s aggression then followed in which the child was observed for ________ minutes using a one-way mirror. This experimental room contained a three foot Bobo doll, a mallet and peg board, etc. It also contained ___________ toys, including a tea set, crayons and coloring paper, a ball, two dolls, three bears, cars and trucks, and plastic farm animals. These toys were always presented in the same order.

The children’s behaviors were observed in five second intervals (_____ response units per child). There were three ‘response measures’ of the children’s imitation, with a range of possible activities in each:

• Imitation of ___________ aggression: striking the Bobo doll with the mallet , sitting on the doll and___________ it, kicking the doll, and tossing it in the air.

• Imitative __________ aggression: repetition of the phrases, ‘Sock him’, ‘Hit him down’, ‘Kick him’, ‘Throw him in the air’ or ‘Pow’

• Imitative ____________ verbal responses: repetition of ‘He keeps coming back for more’ or ‘He sure is a tough fella’

Partially imitative aggression included:

• mallet aggression: striking objects other than the ______ aggressively with the mallet

• sits on Bobo doll: laying the Bobo doll on its side and sitting on it, ________ attacking it.

Two further categories were:

• ________ gun play: shooting darts or aiming a gun and firing imaginary shots at objects in the room.

• ___________ physical and verbal aggression: physically aggressive acts directed toward________ objects and any hostile remarks not in the verbal imitation category ‘Shoot the Bobo’, ‘Cut him’, ‘Stupid ball’, ‘Horses fighting, biting’ ‘Knock over people’

Finally, behavior units were also counted for nonaggressive play and sitting quietly not playing at all, and records were kept of the children’s ____________ about the situation.

One male scored all the children’s behaviors and, except for those conditions in which he was the model, he was _______ of which condition the child had been in (although this was typically obvious in the case of the aggressive model children as they performed the very specific behaviors exhibited by the model).

To test his __, a second scorer independently rated the behavior of half of the children and the reliability was high, around r = for different categories of behavior.

imitated, verbally, imitated, greater, physical, verbal, same, 25.8, 7.2, 5.5, less, girls, aggressive, girls, boys, non aggressive, sex, not

The results for Bandura were that children exposed to **aggressive models** __________ their exact behaviors and were significantly more **aggressive**, both physically and _________ , than those children in the **nonaggressive model or control groups.** These children also _________ the model’s non-aggressive verbal responses. This effect was_________ for **boys** than girls although boys were more likely to imitate __________ aggression and girls more likely to imitate _______ aggression (though not significantly so). **Boys were also more likely to imitate a _______ -sex mode**l as, to a lesser extent, were girls. Some interesting points are that the mean for imitative physical aggression for male subjects ( ______) is much higher than that for female subjects (______ ). This indicates that the boys imitated the **physical aggression of a male model** **more** than the girls. However, with a female model, girls imitated **less** (_____ ) than with the male model.

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Children seeing a **non-aggressive model** were much_______ likely than either the aggressive model group or controls to exhibit **mallet aggression**, and this pattern was especially apparent for_______ . Although the aggressive model did **not** appear to affect levels of gun play or punching the Bobo doll, other non-imitative physical and verbal aggression were higher following exposure to an ________ model compared to the other two conditions.

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There were also differences in non-aggressive play. _________ played more **with dolls, tea sets and coloring** and ________ engaged in more **exploratory play and gun play**. There were **no gender differences** in play with **farm animals, cars or the tether ball**. Both boys and girls seeing the non-aggressive model engaged in more __________ play with dolls than either of the other groups, and spent more than **twice as much time** **sitting quietly, not playing.**

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In addition to the observations, records of the remarks about the aggressive models revealed **differences, both between reactions to the actions of the male and female models and between boys and girls**. Some comments appeared to be based on **previous knowledge of _____-typed behavior,** such as *‘Who is that lady? That’s not the way for a lady to behave. Ladies are supposed to act like ladies . . .’* and *‘You should have seen what that girl did in there. She was just acting like a man. I never saw a girl act like that before. She was punching and fighting but no swearing.’*

Whereas comments about the **female model’s behavior were** **disapproving**, those about the **male model were _____.** This was more likely to be seen as **appropriate and approved by both boys and girls**, for example in comments such as *‘Al’s a good socker, he beat up Bobo. I want to sock like Al’* and *‘That man is a strong fighter, he punched and punched and he could hit Bobo right down to the floor and if Bobo got up he said, ‘Punch your nose.’ He’s a good fighter like Daddy.’*

imitated, aggressive, less, same, aggression

The conclusions of Bandura were that observed aggressive behaviors are ___________: children who see **aggressive models** are **likely to be more** __________ than those seeing a **non-aggressive model or no model.**

Observed **non-aggressive** behaviors are **imitated:** children seeing non-aggressive models will be ________ aggressive than those seeing no model.

Children are more likely to copy a _____-sex model, although this may depend on the extent to which this behavior is **sex-typed.** Boys are more likely to copy __________ than girls.

classical, fear, exposure, buttons

The aim of Saavedra and Silverman was to examine the role of _______ conditioning in relation to _________ **and avoidance** of a particular stimulus. In the context of a **specific phobia**, researchers wanted to see if using a type of **________ therapy** could **reduce** the disgust and distress associated with **________**.

learning, neutral, association, phobias, evaluative, negatively

The background of Saavedra and Silverman is that **classical conditioning** is a form of _________ in which an **unconditioned response** becomes linked to a **previously _________ stimulus** to create a **learned _________ .** Some psychologists believe that abnormal behavior such as __________ can also be both **learned (and unlearned)** in the same way as any other type of behavior.

This case study involves a deeper exploration of the role of cognition and emotion in changing phobic behavior, known as ________ **learning** which is a form of classical conditioning where attitudes towards stimuli are considered to be the **product of complex thought processes and emotions** which lead an individual to **perceive** **a previously neutral stimulus** _______.

clinical case study, self report, phobia, 9, feelings

Saavedra and Silverman was a ________________ as it involved just **one participant** whose life history and treatment was studied **in depth**. Data was collected using _________ **measures**. Both the boy and his mother were **interviewed by the researchers** about the onset of his ____________ and his subsequent behavior. The results of the treatment were measured using a **______-point scale of disgust** known as the **‘_______ Thermometer’.**

image exposure, scored

Saavedra and Silverman independent variable:_______________ therapy to treat the **button phobia**

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Saavedra and Silverman dependent variable: how the boy _______ the buttons on the ‘Feelings Thermometer’

9, buttons, 4

The sample of Saavedra and Silverman was a ______ **-year-old Hispanic American boy.** Along with his mother, he had sought support from the **Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at Florida International University**, Miami. He met the criteria for having a specific phobia of _______ and had been experiencing symptoms for around _________ **years prior** to the start of the study.

consent, 5, increased, hierarchy, clear, 8, contingency, reinforcement, less, 20, 30, imagery, visualization, disgust, self control, falling, feel, larger to smaller

The procedure of Saavedra and Silverman first begun with the boy and his mother providing informed _________ to participate in the study. They were **interviewed** in order to determine whether any **trauma/abuse could explain the boy’s phobia**. The phobia had begun at age ______ , when the boy had **knocked over a bowl of buttons in front of his class and teacher**. He found the incident **distressing**, and from that time onwards his aversion to buttons steadily _________. When he was interviewed the phobia was **interfering significantly** with his normal functioning.

Through discussion with the participant, they created a **________ of feared stimuli**, with each item on the list provoking **increasing fear**. The **most difficult** items for the child were **small, ________ plastic buttons**. These were rated at an **‘______’ on the nine-point Feelings Thermometer**. Handling these or touching someone wearing them was the most unpleasant task for the boy.

The boy was treated with **two** interventions, one after the other. The first was __________ **management**, a form of **positive _______ therapy**. This was a **behavior focused approach** which meant the boy was rewarded for showing ________ **fear** and for **actually handling the buttons**. The positive reinforcement was given to the boy by his mother **only after** he had completed a gradual exposure to buttons. These treatment sessions lasted between _____- ______ minutes.

The second form of therapy, and the **main focus of the study**, was known as ‘_______ exposure’. Interviews with the boy had revealed that he found **buttons touching his body** disgusting, and he also believed that **buttons smelled unpleasant**. These ideas formed the basis for disgust imagery exercises. Unlike *in vivo* exposure, where the individual **actually physically handles the fearful stimuli**, imagery exposure therapy uses ___________ techniques.

**______-related imagery exposures** were incorporated with **cognitive _________ strategies**. The boy was asked to **imagine buttons _______ on him**, and to consider how they **looked, felt and smelled.** He was also asked to talk about how these **imagery exposures made him** _______. The exposures progressed from images of __________ buttons, **in line with the boy’s fear hierarchy.**

completion, positively, increased, 2, 3, improving, increased, reducing, 8, 5, 3, no longer, daily

The results of Saavedra and Silverman in the **positive reinforcement therapy** was a successful ______ of **all the exposure tasks** listed in the hierarchy of fear. The boy was also observed approaching the buttons more _______ . One example of this was that he started **handling larger numbers of buttons during later sessions.**

However, his subjective **ratings of distress** _____ significantly between sessions _____ and ______ , and **continued to rise**. By session **four**, a number of items on the hierarchy such as hugging his mother while wearing buttons had **increased in dislike** from the original scores. So despite his behavior towards the fearful stimuli __________ , his **feelings of disgust, fear and anxiety** actually ________ as a result of the **positive reinforcement therapy**. **This finding is consistent with evaluative learning; despite apparent behavioral change, evaluative reactions (i.e. disgust) remain unchanged or even increased.**

For the **image exposure therapy**, This appeared to be successful in ________ the boy’s rating of distress. One example of this with imagery of **‘hundreds of buttons falling all over his body’.** Prior to imagery therapy, the boy rated this experience the **most fearful and disgusting** (score of ______ on the Feelings Thermometer). This **reduced to** _____ midway through the exposure, and just ________ **after the exposure was complete**.

Following his treatment, **6 month and 12 month follow-ups** were conducted. At these assessment sessions, the boy reported feeling **minimal distress** about buttons. He also **no longer met the diagnostic criteria for a specific phobia of buttons**. His feelings towards buttons ________ **affected his normal functioning**; he was also **able to wear small, clear plastic buttons** on his school uniform on a _________ basis.

successful, disgust, reducing, negative

The conclusions of Saavedra and Silverman were that the treatment was ________.

Specifically, emotions and cognitions relating to ________ are **important** when learning new responses to phobic stimuli, and imagery exposure can have a **long-term effect** on ________ the distress associated with **specific phobias** as it tackles ____________ evaluations.

vocal, understanding

The aim of Pepperberg was to see whether a parrot could use _____ labels to **demonstrate a symbolic ________** of the concepts **‘same’ and ‘different’.**

communication, same, different, birds

The background of Pepperberg is that humans are **not** the only animals capable of making **meaningful _________**. Through studies with non-human primates, researchers have shown that they have the **cognitive capacity to express abstract ideas** and, in some cases, form **meaningful sentences** (through taught sign language/pointing). Although some **language skills** appear to be confined to primates, the cognitive conceptual categorization of items as the _____or ________ is thought to be present in other animals, like _______.

animal case study, laboratory

Pepperberg was an __________________ involving **one subject** who was **trained and tested over a couple of years.** The experiment was conducted in a ______________.

Alex, 10, all, wire cage, suitable, toys

The sample for Pepperberg was **one African Grey parrot** called_____, who had been involved in **prior research on communication and cognition** for around_____ years.

During the day, the parrot had **free access** to_____ areas of the laboratory and at night he was confined to a ____________. He was fed a diet _______ for his species and given ______ to play with.

familiar, novel, response

Pepperberg independent variable: whether the **object** is _____ or______

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Pepperberg dependent variable: Alex’s _________ to the questions **“What’s same?” and “What’s different?”**

vocabulary, categorical, abstract, 5, model/rival, trainer, reward, model, rival, instead, reversed, continuous, rewarded, scolded, delayed, not, unbiased, randomly, boredom, 2, categories, familiar, novel, principal, away, unable, aloud, rewarded, indistinct, removed, away, correction, correct, errors

The procedure for Pepperberg begun by utilizing Alex’s **previous knowledge** **in responding to verbal prompts and his considerable ________** to teach Alex to **respond to questions** with a ______ **label**. This is a more **complex task** which required **____ thinking**. He engaged in training sessions **two to four times a week**, each session lasting between **_____ minutes and one hour.**

The training method used in this study is known as the ______ or M/R approach. Here, **one human** acts as the ______ of the **second human** by **presenting the second with objects**, then **asking questions** about the objects and offering ________ to **desirable responses**. Thus, the second or learner human acts as a ______ to the parrot who is **watching** the interaction. The parrot can be considered a **‘_______’ for the trainer’s attention**; if they **offer the right vocalization** when the question is asked, **they receive the reward** _______ of the model human. The roles of trainer/model are then _________.

At the beginning of training, a system of ______ reinforcement was used to create the **closest possible association** between the **object/category** and **label to be learned**. During training on same/different, the **trainer** would ask the **model** *‘what’s the same?*’ or *‘what’s different’?* The model would either respond with the **correct** category label and be ______ by being **given the object,** or would give an **incorrect** response and be ________ and have the **object taken away**.

**Regarding the task**, at the start of the study **Alex could already say the labels ‘color’ and ‘shape’.** However, it took some time to master the vocalization for matter so the testing phase was ______ for the purposes of **accuracy**. Alex was tested by trainers who had _____worked with him on learning same/different. The materials were paired from a selection given to a student who had **nothing** **to do with the study** to create an _______ set of stimuli. They also ______ ordered the set of questions used in **each trial**. Although researchers were **only interested in data from the same/different questions**, other questions were included to prevent ________ effects like *What color? , How many? , What shape?*

In each trial, Alex was presented with______ objects that could differ in **shape, color or material**. In some trials, Alex was asked by the trainer: **‘what’s the same?’ and ‘what’s different?’** The **correct response** would be for Alex to name the _____________ that were the **same,** and those which were **different**. The task would either involve **pairs of _________ items (familiar trial)** or **one or both items which he had not yet encountered in training (________ trial)**.

The **__________ trainer** was **present** in each trial, but **sat facing ______ from Alex** and was ________ to see the objects being presented. After each of Alex’s responses, the **trainer repeated the vocalization** ______. If Alex’s response had been **correct**, he was **________ with praise and given the items**. **Getting the answer right the** **first time counted towards the ‘first-trial’ response rate**. If it was an **incorrect or ________ vocalization**, **Alex was told ‘No!’ and had the object ________ while the trainer turned their head ______ from the parrot (a ‘time-out’)**. This **_________ procedure** was **repeated** until **the ______ response was given**, and the **number of ______ was recorded.**

familiar, 99, 76.6, correction, 69, 69.7, novel, generalize, entirely new, 96, 85, 79, 82.3, difficult, accurate, received, motivated

The results of Pepperberg were that in tests involving _______ objects, Alex **correctly responded to ____/129 trials** __**(______%)**____.__ This was for **first trials answered correctly** and those that **involved _________ procedures.** For first trials only, Alex answered correctly in **_____/99 instances (______%)**.

The tests also involved **_____ objects** which **measured the extent to which Alex could _____ his understanding and communication around the concepts of ‘same’ and ‘different’ to__________ situations**. Here Alex actually performed **slightly better** on the task, scoring ____**/113 on all trials (______%)**, and **_____/96 (_______%) on first-trial performance only**.

\*\*While we might expect Alex to have found it more **_______** to **judge items which he had never encountered before**, he was actually more _________ at doing so. One reason the researchers suggest for this difference is that Alex ______ the items involved in each trial as his **reward.** As such, he might have been ________ to **do better on novel trials** because he was **curious to investigate newer reward items.**

comprehension, verbal, categorical

The conclusions of Pepperberg were that **parrots have the potential** to demonstrate __________ of the **symbolic concepts ‘same’ and ‘different’** and that they may also **learn to respond to ______ questions to vocalize _______ labels.**