Paper 1 BAUB

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

A hormone that enhances memory by activating the amygdala.

Amygdala

A brain region involved in processing emotions and the formation of long-term emotional memories.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter important for spatial memory formation, likely due to its excitatory effect on neurons in the hippocampus.

Scopolamine

An acetylcholine antagonist that blocks acetylcholine receptors, impairing memory encoding.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change its structure and function in response to experience or learning.

Neural Pruning

The process of eliminating unused neural connections to strengthen those that are used, occurs when learning discontinues.

Pheromones

Chemical signals released by an individual that can affect the behavior or physiology of others, particularly in mate selection.

MHC Genes  (Major Histocompatibility Complex)

Genes that influence immune system function and may affect natural body odor, potentially impacting mate preference.

Longitudinal Study

A research design that follows the same individuals over time to observe changes and long-term outcomes.

fMRI

A brain-scanning technique that measures blood flow to detect brain activity during tasks.

Localization of Function

The theory that specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors or functions.

Informed Consent

Participants’ voluntary agreement to take part in a study after being fully informed of its nature and potential risks.

Double-Blind Experiment

An experiment designed to reduce bias where neither the participants nor the researchers know who receives the treatment or placebo.

Antagonist

A chemical that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter’s effect by binding to its receptor sites.

Neural Networks

Interconnected groups of neurons that form pathways to process and transmit information.

Agonist

A chemical that binds to a receptor and activates it to produce a biological response, enhancing the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Excitatory Synapse

A synapse that increases the likelihood of the receiving neuron firing an action potential, promoting neural activity.

Hormone

A chemical messenger released by glands that travels through the bloodstream and affects behavior or physiology.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how evolutionary principles like natural selection influence human behavior.

Gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait or influences a particular behavior.

Genetic Similarity

The degree of shared DNA between individuals, often used to determine heritability of traits in family, twin, or adoption studies.

Family Study

A type of correlational study that examines behavioral traits across generations.

Social Identity Theory

A theory that explains how individuals derive part of their identity from the groups they belong to, leading to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination.

McGaugh & Cahill (1995) Aim

To investigate the role of emotion and the amygdala in the formation of long-term emotional memories.

McGaugh & Cahill (1995) Procedure

Participants (healthy adult volunteers) were divided into two groups. Both groups viewed the same 12-slide sequence, but each heard a different accompanying story:

• Group 1 heard a mundane story about a hospital visit during a disaster drill.

• Group 2 heard an emotionally arousing story involving a car accident where a boy’s feet were severed and reattached.

Two weeks later, participants completed a recognition task with multiple-choice questions about the slides.

In a follow-up study, a new sample was randomly assigned to receive either a beta-blocker (propranolol) or a placebo before hearing the emotional story, to test the role of adrenaline and the amygdala

McGaugh & Cahill (1995) Findings

• Participants who heard the emotional story recalled significantly more details than those who heard the mundane version.

• In the follow-up study, participants given propranolol (which blocked amygdala

activation) did not show enhanced memory, performing similarly to the mundane story group.

• This suggests that emotional arousal (via adrenaline) enhances memory through amygdala activation.

McGaugh & Cahill (1995) Conclusion

This study demonstrates that the hormone adrenaline enhances memory by activating the amygdala. When this biological response was blocked, emotional memory improvements disappeared. These findings support the role of the amygdala and stress hormones in memory consolidation. The use of a lab experiment allowed the researchers to clearly isolate the biological mechanisms behind emotional memory

Antonova et al. (2011) Aim

To investigate the effect of acetylcholine (blocked using scopolamine) on the formation of spatial memory in humans.

Antonova et al. (2011) Procedure

• A sample of 20 healthy male adults participated in a double-blind, repeated measures lab experiment. Each participant was injected with either scopolamine (an acetylcholine antagonist) or a placebo 70–90 minutes before completing the task.

• Participants were placed in an fMRI scanner while completing a virtual reality spatial memory task (Arena task), where they had to navigate to a hidden pole, rehearse its location, and find it again from a new starting point.

• Each participant completed the task twice, receiving the opposite treatment (placebo or scopolamine) during the second session 3–4 weeks later.

Antonova et al. (2011) Findings

Participants showed reduced activation in the hippocampus when injected with scopolamine, compared to the placebo condition. This suggests that acetylcholine plays a significant role in the encoding of spatial memory in the human hippocampus.

Antonova et al. (2011) Conclusion

This study shows that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is important for spatial memory formation, likely due to its excitatory effect on neurons in the hippocampus. By using scopolamine (an antagonist) to block acetylcholine receptors, researchers observed impaired memory encoding. The study used a lab experiment and fMRI technology to measure the effect of neurotransmitter activity on brain function and behaviour.

Draganski et al. (2004) Aim

To investigate whether learning a new motor skill (juggling) leads to structural changes in the brain, demonstrating neuroplasticity

Draganski et al. (2004) Procedure

• The study included 24 participants (21 females, 3 males), all of whom were non- jugglers at the start. Participants were randomly divided into two groups: jugglers and non-jugglers (control).

• All participants underwent an MRI scan at the beginning of the study.

• Jugglers were taught a three-ball cascade routine and asked to practice until mastery, then received a second MRI scan. They were then told to stop juggling, and a third scan was taken three months later.

• Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) was used to analyze changes in grey matter

Draganski et al. (2004) Findings

• After learning to juggle, jugglers showed a significant increase in grey matter in the mid-temporal areas of the brain, associated with visual memory.

• After three months without juggling, some of the increased grey matter decreased, suggesting neural pruning.

• The control group showed no change in brain structure across the same period.

Draganski et al. (2004) Conclusion

This study demonstrates neuroplasticity, showing that repeated learning leads to neural growth (dendritic branching), and the discontinuation of practice leads to neural pruning. It also shows how MRI can be used to study changes in brain structure over time and is a clear example of a lab experiment with a control group to observe learning-induced brain changes.

Voxel-based morphometry (VBM)

A neuroimaging analysis technique used to assess changes in brain structure, particularly grey matter density, by comparing MRI scans.

Wedekind et al. (1995) Aim

To investigate whether MHC gene dissimilarity influences mate preference through pheromonal cues (body odor).

Wedekind et al. (1995) Procedure

• The study involved 49 female and 44 male students from the University of Bern, all tested for MHC gene types.

• Men wore a T-shirt for two nights, avoiding scented products, alcohol, spicy food, and sexual activity.

• Women, tested during their most odor-sensitive phase of the menstrual cycle, were asked to smell and rate seven T-shirts (three with similar MHC, three with dissimilar MHC, and one unworn control).

• The experiment was double-blind to reduce bias, and women rated the T-shirts for intensity, pleasantness, and sexiness.

Wedekind et al. (1995) Findings

• Women rated T-shirts from MHC-dissimilar men as more pleasant and attractive.

• This effect was reversed for women taking oral contraceptives, who preferred MHC-similar odors.

• This suggests that pheromones related to MHC dissimilarity influence human mate selection, possibly to enhance immune diversity in offspring.

Wedekind et al. (1995) Conclusion

This study supports evolutionary psychology by showing that mate selection may be driven by biological mechanisms (MHC and pheromones) to enhance offspring survival. It illustrates the role of genes in behavior, particularly in mate choice, and used a double-blind experiment to ensure objectivity. It also raises ethical considerations, such as privacy and informed consent regarding genetic information and reproduction-related topics.

Weissman et al. (2005) Aim

To investigate the intergenerational transmission of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and assess whether depression has a genetic basis using a longitudinal family (kinship) study.

Weissman et al. (2005) Procedure

• This 20-year longitudinal study followed 160 grandchildren, their parents, and grandparents.

• The original sample included grandparents with and without depression, selected from a mood disorder clinic and the community, respectively.

• Families were assessed across three generations, with structured clinical interviews conducted by clinicians blind to previous diagnoses. Diagnoses were verified using researcher triangulation and inter-rater reliability checks.

Weissman et al. (2005) Findings

• Grandchildren with two generations of MDD (both depressed parents and grandparents) showed the highest rates of psychiatric disorders (59.2% by age 12).

• Parental depression alone did not significantly affect grandchildren if the grandparents were not depressed.

• The severity of parental depression was positively correlated with increased risk of mood disorders in children.

Weissman et al. (2005) Conclusion

This study demonstrates how genetic similarities within families (kinship) may influence the heritability of behavior, such as depression. It uses the family study method, a common research approach in genetics, to assess behavioral inheritance over three generations. Ethical considerations include psychological impact, confidentiality, and informed consent for a longitudinal mental health study involving children

Brain imaging

The use of neuroimaging techniques to observe the structure or function of the brain.

Neural Activation

The stimulation of neurons in response to a specific cognitive or emotional task.

Explain one technique used to study the brain in relation to behavior with reference to one study. - Link

Sharot et al. (2007) used fMRI, a technique to study the brain, to demonstrate how emotional memories (like those of 9/11) are linked to activity in the amygdala, supporting the idea of localization of emotional processing. This shows how brain imaging techniques like fMRI can provide insights into the biological basis of behaviour.

Hippocampus

A region of the brain essential for memory formation and spatial navigation, playing a critical role in long-term memory and learning.

Explain localization of function, with reference to one study - Link

Antonova et al.’s study supports the theory of localization of function, demonstrating that the hippocampus is specifically involved in spatial memory. When acetylcholine activity in this region was blocked, both hippocampal activation and spatial task performance declined, linking this brain region directly to the behavior studied.

Grey Matter

Brain tissue composed of neuronal cell bodies, associated with processing and cognition.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A non-invasive imaging technique used to visualize the internal structures of the body, particularly useful for imaging soft tissues like the brain.

Learning-Induced Plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning and experience, enhancing memory and cognition.

Synaptic Pruning

The process of eliminating unused neural connections to strengthen those that are used.

Explain neuroplasticity, with reference to one study - Link

Draganski et al. demonstrates neuroplasticity by showing that the brain’s structure (grey matter) can physically change in response to acquiring a new motor skill. This supports the idea that learning and experience directly shape the brain’s anatomy, reflecting the brain’s adaptive nature.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger that transmits signals across synapses between neurons, influencing behavior and mental processes.

Spatial Memory

The ability to recall the location of objects or one’s orientation in space.

Explain the effect of one neurotransmitter on human behaviour, with reference to one study - Link

Antonova et al. (2011) demonstrates that acetylcholine influences human behaviour by facilitating spatial memory; when ACh was blocked, memory performance and hippocampal activity were both impaired, highlighting the neurotransmitter’s essential role in cognitive functioning.

Right to Withdraw

The ethical right of participants to leave the study at any time without penalty.

Ethics

A set of moral principles that guide research to ensure the dignity, rights, and welfare of participants are protected.

Privacy

Ensuring personal information or sensitive biological data are kept confidential.

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the brain and behavior - Link

One important ethical consideration in Wedekind et al. (1995) is privacy. Because the study involved the collection and analysis of sensitive biological data (specifically MHC gene compatibility), researchers had to ensure that participants’ genetic information remained confidential. Disclosing or mishandling this information could lead to personal discomfort, stigma, or misuse. Protecting biological privacy was essential to uphold ethical standards and participant trust in brain and behavior research.

Experiment

A method involving manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable while controlling extraneous factors.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of the brain and behavior - Link

Antonova et al. (2011) used a laboratory experiment as the research method, allowing for the controlled manipulation of acetylcholine levels (via scopolamine) and the measurement of its effect on brain activity. The double-blind design minimized participant and researcher bias, strengthening the study’s internal validity. The experiment method was effective in isolating the causal relationship between neurotransmitter levels and behavior.

Explain the role of one antagonist with reference to one study - Link

Antonova et al. (2011) demonstrates the role of scopolamine as an antagonist by showing how it blocked acetylcholine receptors, leading to impaired spatial memory and reduced hippocampal activity. This supports the conclusion that acetylcholine is crucial for memory and highlights how antagonists can disrupt neurotransmitter function and influence behavior.

Explain the formation of neural networks with the use of one study - Link

Draganski et al. (2004) provides clear evidence of the formation of neural networks through structural brain changes resulting from motor learning, demonstrating how repeated activity strengthens neural pathways, a process central to neuroplasticity.

Explain neural pruning with reference to one study - Link

Draganski et al. (2004) demonstrates neural pruning through the decrease in grey matter volume after participants stopped practicing juggling, highlighting how the brain eliminates unused connections to maintain efficiency.

Explain the role of one agonist with reference to one study - Link

Although Antonova et al. (2011) used an antagonist (scopolamine) to block acetylcholine receptors, the study indirectly highlights the role of acetylcholine as an agonist, since its normal activation of receptors is necessary for proper spatial memory formation. The reduced hippocampal activity and poorer task performance in the scopolamine condition demonstrate that acetylcholine enhances memory by binding to excitatory synapses in the hippocampus, supporting its role as an agonist in cognitive processes.

Explain the role of inhibitory or excitatory synapses in one behavior with reference to one study - Link

Antonova et al. (2011) highlights the role of excitatory synapses in spatial memory by showing that blocking acetylcholine, an excitatory neurotransmitter, led to reduced hippocampal activity and poorer memory performance. This suggests that acetylcholine normally facilitates neural firing at excitatory synapses in the hippocampus, which is essential for encoding spatial information—demonstrating how excitatory transmission directly supports cognitive behaviors like memory.

Synaptic Transmission

The process by which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron and bind to receptors on another.

Memory Consolidation

The process by which memories are stabilized and strengthened over time, often involving the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory.

Explain the effect of one hormone on human behavior with reference to one study - Link

McGaugh & Cahill (1995) demonstrates that adrenaline, released during emotionally arousing experiences, enhances memory consolidation by activating the amygdala, leading to stronger recall of emotional events. This shows how the hormone directly influences behavior—in this case, the ability to remember emotionally significant experiences more vividly.

Mate Preference

A behavior related to selecting reproductive partners based on biological or psychological factors.

Explain one effect of one potential pheromone in human behavior with reference to one study - Link

Wedekind et al. (1995) provides evidence that MHC-related body odor, a potential pheromone, can influence mate preference—with women favoring the scent of men whose MHC genes differed from their own. This suggests that this specific pheromone may subconsciously guide mate selection, supporting the role of evolutionary mechanisms in shaping human behavior.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of hormones or pheromones - Link

Wedekind et al. used a double-blind experiment to investigate the effect of pheromones on behavior, effectively controlling for bias and establishing a cause-and-effect relationship between MHC similarity and mate preference—demonstrating how experimental research methods are used to study pheromonal influences on human behavior.

Psychological Harm

 Emotional or mental distress caused to participants during or after a study.

Debriefing

A procedure conducted after a study to inform participants about the study's purpose, methods, and any potential effects, ensuring they leave without lingering misconceptions or emotional harm.

Protection from Harm

The ethical principle ensuring that participants are not exposed to unnecessary or excessive harm, either psychological or physical, during a study.

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of hormones or pheromones - Link

• A key ethical concern in McGaugh & Cahill (1995) is psychological harm. Participants who viewed the emotionally distressing story were exposed to intense content involving traumatic injuries and a child’s surgery, which may have caused emotional discomfort or anxiety. Emotional arousal, which was the focus of the study, can lead to psychological harm if not carefully managed.

• The use of informed consent in such studies should ensure participants are fully aware of the potentially distressing content and the psychological effects they may experience. Moreover, debriefing becomes essential to address any psychological discomfort, explaining the purpose of the emotional content and ensuring participants’ well-being post-study.

• Therefore, McGaugh & Cahill (1995) illustrates the need to prioritize protection from harm in research involving emotional or hormonal manipulation.

Explain the role of one gene in one behavior with reference to one study - Link

The MHC gene plays a role in mate preference, a behavior that enhances offspring immune system diversity through natural selection. Wedekind et al. (1995) showed that women were subconsciously attracted to the scent of men with genetically different MHC, indicating that this gene influences human reproductive behavior. This supports the theory from evolutionary psychology that genetic compatibility—sensed through pheromones—is an adaptive behavior linked to reproductive success.

Heritability

A measure of how much variation in a trait (like depression) can be attributed to genetic factors

Kinship Study (Family Study)

A research method examining how genetic relatedness correlates with behavioral traits across generations and between family members.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

A mental disorder characterized by persistent sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest, often studied for its genetic basis

Explain how genetic similarities help psychologists in the study of genes and behavior with reference to one study - Link

Weissman et al. (2005) illustrates how genetic similarities—in this case, between grandparents, parents, and grandchildren—help psychologists understand the heritable nature of depression. The higher incidence of MDD in families with multiple generations affected supports the role of genetic inheritance in behavior. This family (kinship) study shows that behavior such as depression can run in families, allowing researchers to distinguish between genetic and environmental influences on mental health.

Genetic Compatibility

The idea that humans are evolutionarily predisposed to choose mates with different immune system genes (MHC), increasing offspring viability.

Explain one evolutionary explanation of behavior with reference to one study - Link

Wedekind et al. (1995) provides strong evidence for an evolutionary explanation of behavior by demonstrating that mate preference may be biologically programmed to favor genetic diversity, especially in immune system genes (MHC). This supports the theory of natural selection, suggesting that humans have evolved mechanisms—such as pheromonal detection—to enhance reproductive success and the survival of offspring.

Explain one ethical consideration in one study of genes and behavior - Link

• A key ethical consideration in Weissman et al. (2005) is psychological harm, particularly due to the stigmatization and emotional burden of learning about a genetic vulnerability to Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Participants—especially children and adolescents—may have experienced anxiety, fear, or altered self-identity upon being identified as high-risk. This could lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, where individuals believe they are destined to develop a disorder, or unnecessary stress in family dynamics, especially if parents feel guilt over passing on a predisposition.

• The study also raises concerns about how participants might be treated differently by others (e.g., teachers or doctors) based on genetic risk, highlighting the importance of protecting participants from lasting emotional and social harm.

Explain the use of one research method in one study of genes and behavior

• Weissman et al. (2005) used a longitudinal family study, a correlational research method that Weissman et al. (2005) used a longitudinal family study, a correlational research method well-suited to examining the genetic heritability of behavior over time. By tracking three generations over 20 years, researchers could identify patterns and intergenerational transmission of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), offering insight into genetic risk factors.

• The long-term design strengthened the validity of the findings by capturing how mental health outcomes evolved across development. Additionally, the study employed researcher triangulation, using multiple clinicians blind to prior diagnoses to reduce observer bias and increase the reliability of diagnostic assessments.

• While this method cannot prove causation, it was highly effective for studying complex genetic influences on behavior in a naturalistic, ethical way.

Researcher Triangulation

Using multiple observers or methods to enhance credibility and reduce bias.

Inheritance of Behaviour

The passing of behavioral traits from one generation to the next through genetic transmission.

Genetic Vulnerability

 A predisposition to certain behaviors or disorders based on genetic makeup.

Explain the use of kinship studies or twin studies in the study of inheritance of behavior, making use of one study - Link

Weissman et al. (2005) demonstrates the use of kinship studies to trace patterns of inherited behavior. By comparing the mental health outcomes of related individuals across generations, researchers could assess the heritable nature of depression. This method is useful for identifying genetic risk factors for mental illness, though it does not rule out environmental influences.

McGaugh & Cahill (1995) – Emotionally Arousing Stories Themes

Effect of hormones (adrenaline) on memory, Amygdala and memory consolidation, Research method (lab experiment), Ethical considerations (deception, emotional manipulation)

Antonova et al. (2011) – VR Spatial Memory Themes

Use of fMRI to study brain activity, Acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter (agonist/antagonist), Excitatory synapses and memory, Research method (lab experiment)

Draganski et al. (2004) - Juggling Themes

Neuroplasticity (learning-induced brain changes), Formation of neural networks, Neural pruning, MRI as a technique

Wedekind et al. (1995) - Body Odour and Attraction Themes

Pheromones (MHC genes and mate preference), Evolutionary psychology, Genes and behaviour, Research method (double-blind experiment), Ethical considerations

Weissman et al. (2005) - Generational Depression Themes

Genetic similarities, kinship studies, behavioural inheritance