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Trepanation
holes were drilled into the skull to release evil spirits thought to cause mental illness or seizures
Shows early attempts to link brain and behavior
Dualism
Mind (soul) and body separate
Monism
Mind and body are one unified system
Cardiocentric View
Heart = center of thought and emotion
Brain seen as unimportant
ancient egyptians + ancient greeks
Aristotle
mind resides in heart — mind or soul can reach out to the body to act to interact with the world
brain act as car radiator; brain cools body to keep it working how it should
Hippocrates
father of medicine + four humors — blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm
mind and soul resides in brain to drive it
brain controls movement of fluids to control body for functional outputs which result in behavior
Galen
animal spirits: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm — mind controls them
if you had imbalance it would give you certain behaviors or issues; mind pushes fluid to cause action in body
mapped out the ventricles
Descartes
dualism
Mind and body interact via the pineal gland → where the mind is
animal spirits, reflexes as mechanical
Galvani
used separated frog legs, applied electrical current and legs retracted — body does not move with the movement of fluids; disproves Descartes
electrical chemical signaling is how we move/cause physical action
Franz Gall
Phrenology
Belief that personality and moral character could be determined by feeling bumps on the skull
Assumed physical characteristics = moral disposition
Localization of Function
specific brain regions control specific behaviors or abilities
Müller
pushed for direct experimentation
Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies
The brain interprets signals based on which nerve pathway is activated, not the signal itself
Flourens
Studied brain function using animal experiments
Used ablation / lesions (removing parts of the brain)
Observed how behavior changed after damage
Helped show that some functions are localized, while others are more distributed
Broca’s Aphasia
Affects language production
Speech is slow, effortful, and limited
Broca’s area
left frontal lobe
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Affects language comprehension
Speech is fluent but meaningless
Person has difficulty understanding others and often doesn’t realize their speech makes no sense
Wernicke’s area
left temporal lobe
Karl Lashley
Memory loss depends on how much brain tissue is removed
Not where it’s removed
Engram
Physical memory trace in the brain
Model Systems
Used to study complex processes
Cell cultures
Computer models
Animals
Generalization
Asking whether a phenomenon occurs across different species
Reductionism
Breaking complex behaviors into simpler components
Animal welfare
ethical treatment while allowing research
Animal rights
animals should not be used in research at all
U.S. Animal Welfare Act
Researchers are legally required to:
Minimize suffering
Use alternatives when possible
Benefits of Animal Research
Improved human healthcare
vaccines
medications
surgical procedures
Improved veterinary care for animals
Charles Darwin
survival of the fittest
evolution: Change in traits of a population over generations
Natural Selection
Traits that improve survival/reproduction become more common
Functionalism
Brain structures evolved because they serve adaptive functions
Selective Advantage
A trait that increases fitness/likelihood of survival and reproduction
Ethical Issues in Research with Animals
Minimize pain and distress
Use the fewest animals necessary
Use alternatives when possible
Justify scientific value
Adaptation
A trait or behavior that has evolved because it increases survival or reproductive success.
Behavioral Neuroscience
The scientific study of the biological bases of behavior, including the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics.
What it focuses on:
How neural activity produces behavior
How behavior changes with brain damage or stimulation
Distribution of Animal Models
The idea that different animal species are used to study different biological or behavioral processes based on similarity to humans.
Why it matters:
Simpler systems → basic processes
Complex systems → higher cognition
Examples:
Invertebrates (worms, flies): neural circuits
Rodents: learning, memory, drug effects
Primates: cognition, vision, social behavior
Application:
You wouldn’t study human language in a worm — but you would study basic neural signaling.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
somatic nervous system
autonomic nervous system
Somatic Nervous System
part of peripheral nervous system
involved in hot cold pain pressure — sensory info and voluntary motor skills or reflexive behavior
Spinal Nerves
Cranial Nerves
Spinal nerves
all mixed nerves
Enter/exit spinal cord
Cranial nerves
12 pairs of nerves in brain; one on left side and right side
can be afferent, efferent, or mixed
Afferent nerves
uni-directional picks up sensory info from body to brain
olfactory nerve; smelling
optic nerve; eyes
Efferent nerves
uni-directional picks up motor info from brain to body
Mixed Nerves
facial nerve; affrent taste info + efferent; motor fibers mixed in to control muscles of face
all spinal nerves are mixed
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Controls involuntary functions (organs, glands).
Sympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
in autonomic nervous system
“Fight or flight”
Increases heart rate
Dilates pupils
Inhibits digestion
Parasympathetic Nervous System
in autonomic nervous system
“Rest and digest”
Slows heart
Stimulates digestion
Conserves energy
Neuroaxis
imaginary line through CNS
bent in humans to allow us to stand upwards
bipedal
Anterior / Rostral
toward front
nose
Posterior / Caudal
toward back
occipital lobe
Dorsal
toward top
top of brain
Ventral
toward bottom
brainstem
medial
toward midline
Corpus callosum
Lateral
towards sides
temporal lobes
Ipsilateral
same side
left arm, left leg
Contralateral
opposite sides
right arm, left leg
Motor control is mostly this
Cross section
Any slice of the brain
Coronal / Frontal / Transverse
front to back
like bread
Horizontal
a slice parallel to a table top (like a biscuit)
top hamburger bun to bottom bun
Sagittal
Left and right sides
Midsagittal
exactly down the middle; left and right hemispheres
Meninges
The three membranes (the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater) surround brain and spinal cord
Dura Mater
“tough mother”
outter layer
Arachnoid Membrane
Web-like middle layer
Subarachnoid space contains CSF
Pia Mater
attached to brain
covers white matter in brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Cushions brain
Removes waste
Provides nutrients
produced in Choroid Plexus in ventricles
just filtered plasma
Ventricles
continuous hollow interconnected cavities in brain
filled with CSF
Lateral ventricle
first ventricle of brain; largest
one in each hemisphere
Third ventricle
third ventricle
Fourth ventricle
carrys to spinal cord down midline to central canal
Hydrocephalus
Excess CSF buildup → increased brain pressure.
nerves
bundle of axons in periphery
tract
bundle of axons in CNS
spinal cord nerves
cervical (8 nerves)
thoracic (12 nerves)
lumbar (5 nerves)
sacral (5 nerves)
coccygeal (1 nerve)
spinal tap / lumbar puncture
collects CSF
diagnostic — to test for issues and monitor levels in patients
deliver anesthetic and medications
epidural
Grey matter in spinal cord
cell bodies; in center
White matter in spinal cord
on the outside, makes sending messages faster
due to mylienation
Grey matter in brain
outer layer; cortex
White matter in brain
inner layers
Brain Development
Neural Plate → Neural Groove → Neural Tube
forms central nervous system
Neurogenesis
Birth of new neurons.
Dorsal and Ventral Roots
bundles of nerve fibers connecting the spinal cord to spinal nerves
Dorsal Root
carries sensory (afferent) information to the spinal cord
Ventral Root
carries motor (efferent) signals away from the cord to muscles and glands
forebrain
prosencephalon
midbrain
mesencephalon
forebrain contains
telencephalon
diencephalon
hindbrain contains
metencephalon
mylencephalon
stem cell
undifferentiated
pluripotent; can make anything they want
self-renew; divide
progenitor cells
undifferentiated
limited self-renewal; makes another PC and a differential which has another function to another part of the body
become the workers for SC
asymmetrical and symmetrical division
eventually comes symmetrical to produce two differientiated cells to take on a specific job in body
neuron migration
driven by radial glia
radial glia
a ‘scaffold’ for neuron migration
Ventricular Zone
Where neurons are born.
cerebral cortex
part of telencephalon
hypothalamus and thalamus
part of diencephalon
pons, cerebellum
part of metencephalon
medulla
part of mylencephalon
medulla
controls basic autonomic functions (e.g., breathing, heart rate, pump blood)
in hindbrain
cerebellum
“little brain” motor behavior
recieves sensory input from motor cortex in cerebral cortex
regulation of coordination; has access to them to help add in details to make a coordinated movement
sequence, balance, and coordination — through force, speed, timing
in hindbrain
pons
“bridge”
connecting the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex; a bidirectional relay station
arousal, sleep, and respiration
in hindbrain
tectum
roof of midbrain/mesencephalon — processing sensory info
contains superior colliculus and inferior colliculus