blood, immune, and endocrine

Connective tissue

blood is a __________

erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes

What are the formed elements?

Erythrocytes

transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood

Erythrocytes

concave disc, presence of hemoglobin, and no nuclei

hematopoiesis

the formation of new blood cells. Occurs in the bone marrow. Old erythrocytes are recycled in the liver and spleen

Leukocytes

Function: immunity, protection against disease

Leukocytes

Characteristics: contains organelles and nuclei. Stain different colors.

Thrombocytes

also known as platelets

cellular fragments

thrombocytes are ___________

thrombocytes

function: work in a cascading pathway to form blood clots and stop bleeding

hemostasis

the process of stopping bleeding

granulocytes

granules and lobed nuclei

Neutrophils \**look at slides for how to remember*

multiple lobes

eosinophils

stain red

Basophils

hidden nucleus

Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

Which leukocytes are granulocytes?

monocytes and lymphocytes

Which leukocytes are agranulocytes?

Monocytes

one curved lobe

lymphocytes

simple appearance; looks like a circular blob

plasma

The formed elements are suspended in a fluid called

plasma

**Characteristics**: yellowish in color

plasma proteins

Plasma is 90% water and 10% solute that contains **____________** and other dissolved substances

albumin, fibrinogen, and globulins

What is contained in the solutes of plasma?

albumin

Function: osmosis regulation

fibrinogen

Function: clotting

globulins

Function: variety of roles in clotting and immunity

heparinization

prevents coagulation (mixing) of the blood sample using heparin protein

Hematocrit

**Function**: determines the shortage or excess of RBC

Males

Do males or females have higher hematocrit levels?

it means that the blood is denser, or less concentrated

What does it mean to have a higher hematocrit level?

The blood has more fluid

What does it mean to have a lower hematocrit level?

polycythemia (many cells) and dehydration

What are the conditions for high hematocrit?

anemia

what are the conditions of low hematocrit?

antigen

surface protein that act as identifiers, like nametags; describers a marker on a foreign substance that might trigger an immune response

antibodies

immunoglobulins; blood proteins that are used to identify and neutralize foreign threats such as pathogens

Made up of multiple polypeptide chains; contain 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains

What is the structure of an antibody?

antigen binding domain

_____________ opposite to the constant proportion

constant proportion

antigen binding domain opposite to the _____________

antigens

Blood type is determined by the presence or absence of **__________** on RBCs

antigens

proteins on RBCs

antibodies

exist in plasma and generate an immune response

A, B, AB, O

What are the 4 blood types?

Blood typing

**Function**: determines compatibility of blood types for blood transfusions and organ transplants

the donors blood will clump in the recipients vein

What happens if the donor and receipt blood types are incompatible?

agglutination

when the blood cells glue together, coagulation

nametag

antigens are the ___________

specialized weapon

antibodies are the _____________

recipient antibodies

What determines whether agglutination occurs or not?

II or Ii

What are the genotypes for type A blood?

II

What are the genotypes for type AB blood?

II or Ii

What are the genotypes for type B blood?

ii

What are the genotypes for type O blood?

Innate immune system

* Nonspecific, general purpose immune response


* Ready to fight infection from birth


* Inflammation
* Physical and chemical barriers, e.g. skin, mucous membranes, saliva, stomach acid

adaptive immune system

* Immune response specific to the infecting pathogen


* Controlled by detecting antigens and producing antibodies

Neutrophils, macrophages, complement proteins, dendritic cells, eosinophils, basophils

What is involved in the innate immune system?

Lymphocytes: T cells and B cells

What is involved in the adaptive immune system?

macrophages

* Large soldier cells of the immune system


* Non-specific, innate immune response
* Reach out with arms like an octopus to grab and eat bacteria cells whole (phagocytosis)

neutrophils

* Intense suicide warrior cells that only live to kill


* Non-specific, innate immune response
* Devour bacteria
* Vomit deadly chemicals to kill bacteria
* Cause damage to the body’s own cells
* Programmed cell death to prevent too much damage to the self
* Can explode, casting a wide, toxic net made of DNA to trap and kill bacteria

inflammation

* Blood vessels open up to allow fluid to rush to the site of infection


* Swelling
* Redness 
* Warmth  
* Non-specific, innate immune response
* Good when fighting an infection, short-term
* Bad when chronic, long-term damage

complement proteins

* Network of plasma proteins, not living cells
* Automated liquid weapon
* Stun and kill bacteria by ripping holes in them
* Non-specific, innate immune response
* Way to remember (yes, I came up with this): SUPRISE SHAWTYYYY U LOOK SO SEXY TODAY (see, i just complimented u and u were stunned just like how a _________ _______ stuns and kills bacteria hehe (except i wont be killing u))

dendritic cells

* Immune system intelligence officer


* Covers itself with pieces of dead pathogen cells 
* Travels through lymph to present pathogen cell fragments to T cells
* Connection point between innate and adaptive immune systems

lymphatic system

* Superhighway of the immune system fluid vessels similar to blood vessels


* Connect lymph nodes - headquarters for immune cells 

T cells

* All-purpose commander and support cells of the immune system (helper __ cells)
* Adaptive immune response, specific to the antigens of the infecting pathogen
* Order the production of antibodies by B cells (**T** cells **T**ell what the B cells to do)
* Give aid to and rejuvenate macrophages
* May adapt to become memory cells after the infection is resolved (Memory __ Cells)
* Some adapt to fight and kill infected cells (Killer ___ Cells)

T cells

what cells order the production of antibodies by B cells?

B cells

What cells produce antibodies?

B cells

* Antibody factories


* Produce antibodies: plasma protein superweapons specific to the invading pathogen
* Adaptive immune response
* Some adapt to become memory __ cells

thymus

* Site of T cell maturation: the “Murder University” where T cells that attack self antigens are ordered to undergo programmed cell death


* Decreases in size and activity starting at puberty, gradually replaced by fatty tissue

vaccines

* Dead, fragmented, or weakened live variants of pathogens are injected into the body 


* Trigger an adaptive immune response 
* Creates memory cells specific to a pathogen
* Common side effects: inflammation, fever, rash

Endocrine system

Messenger system made up of several glands that produce hormones

hormones

chemical messengers that are regulated by feedback mechanisms

glands

produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream

melatonin

What hormone does the pineal gland produce?

melatonin

Function: regulates sleep, circadian rhythm, and responds to light and dark

pituitary gland

* Located inferior to the hypothalamus, secretes some hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus


* Composed of anterior and posterior portions

growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and prolactin

What hormones are produced in the anterior pituitary gland?

growth hormone

function: growth

thyroid stimulating hormone

function: regulates thyroid growth and hormone production

luteinizing hormone

function: produces androgens in males and females and triggers ovulation

prolactin

function: stimulates milk production

antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin

What hormones are produced in the posterior pituitary gland?

antidiuretic (ADH, Vasopressin)

function: regulates blood pressure through urine production

oxytocin

Function:

* Social behavior and bonding
* Sexual response
* Milk ejection
* Uterine contractions (labor)

thyroid hormone and calcitonin

What hormones are produced in the thyroid gland?

Thyroid hormone

function:

* Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR)
* Regulate growth and temperature

calcitonin

function:

* Inhibits osteoclast activity → decrease blood Ca2+
* Counteracts PTH in negative feedback mechanism to regulate calcium levels

parathyroid hormone

What hormone is produced by the parathyroid gland?

Parathyroid hormone

Function:

* Stimulates osteoclast activity → decreases blood Ca2+


* Increases Vitamin D production
* Counteracts calcitonin in negative feedback mechanism to regulate calcium levels

thymosin

what hormone is produced by the thymus?

thymosin

function:

* T cell development and differentiation
* Regulate immune responses

cortisol and epinephrine

What hormones are produced by the adrenal glands?

cortisol

function:

* Elevated when stressed
* Increase blood sugar through gluconeogenesis
* Suppresses immune system

epinephrine

function:

* Sympathetic nervous response - fight or flight
* Increase heart rate, respiratory rate

insulin and glucagon

What hormones are produced by the pancreas?

insulin

function: Decreases blood sugar levels by regulating cell uptake of glucose and glycogenesis

glucagon

function: Increase blood sugar levels by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

estrogen and progesterone

What hormones are produced by the ovaries?

estrogen

function: Regulate reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics in females

progesterone

function: Many functions in regulating pregnancy

testosterone

What hormone is produced by the testes?

testosterone

Functions:

* Anabolic effects in males and females: bone density, protein synthesis, muscle mass and strength 
* Androgenic effects in males: secondary sex characteristics