Social Cognition

What do small variations within a population provide individuals with?

Different abilities to compete over resources or to reproduce.

What is the significance of differential reproductive success in evolution?

It leads to the progressive evolution of particular populations of a species.

How do primates' brain sizes compare to other vertebrates?

Primates have unusually large brains for their body size.

What are the two main hypotheses explaining the evolution of large brains in primates?

The ecological hypothesis and the social hypothesis.

What does the ecological hypothesis suggest about large brains?

They are a by-product of the cognitive demands of certain behaviors like foraging and tool use.

What does the social hypothesis propose about large brains?

They reflect enhanced social skills developed through social competition.

What are some social skills that provide a direct survival advantage to individuals?

Deception, manipulation, alliance formation, and exploitation of others' expertise.

What is the social brain hypothesis?

It suggests that large brains reflect enhanced social skills that influence individuals indirectly.

What is empathy?

The identification and sharing of another's affective states.

What is the difference between empathy and sympathy?

Empathy involves isomorphic emotional responses, while sympathy is an emotional response congruent with another's feelings but not necessarily isomorphic.

What is mentalising?

Drawing inferences about other people's mental states, including their affective states.

What is empathic concern?

Understanding the suffering of others and having the motivation to act.

What is emotion contagion?

The tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize facial expressions and vocalizations with another person.

What are some methods for measuring empathy?

Questionnaires like the Empathy Quotient, Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and Fantasy Scale.

What are mirror neurons?

Neurons that activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe that action performed by someone else.

What is the role of the medial prefrontal cortex in social cognition?

It links value to actions and is involved in thinking about people and their mental states.

What is Theory of Mind?

The capacity to attribute mental states to oneself and others.

What are the levels of intentionality in Theory of Mind?

Zero-order, first-order, second-order, and third-order intentionality.

What types of abilities are enabled by Theory of Mind?

Inferring thoughts, feelings, intentions, attributing responsibility, lying, and teaching.

What is the significance of the temporal-parietal junction in social cognition?

It is activated in tasks involving attribution of mental states and self-other distinction.

How do individuals with autism typically perform on Theory of Mind tasks?

They often perform poorly or are incapable of succeeding in false belief tasks.

What is the final portion of the brain to mature, and what functions does it support?

The prefrontal cortex, responsible for rational executive functions like planning and problem-solving.

What are the underlying causes for empathy deficits in autism?

They are controversial and mixed evidence exists regarding simulation/emotion sharing.

What are the implications of the social brain hypothesis for human social behaviors?

It suggests that specialized social cognition skills evolved to support unique and complex human social behaviors.

What is Theory of Mind in relation to cognitive capacities?

Theory of Mind is the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others, allowing for understanding and predicting behavior.

What is the difference between first-order and second-order intentionality?

First-order intentionality involves beliefs and desires without beliefs about beliefs, while second-order intentionality includes beliefs about other people's beliefs.

Which species are suggested to have second-order intentionality?

Only great apes are suggested to possess second-order intentionality.

What cognitive capacity can human adults achieve in terms of intentionality?

Human adults are capable of fifth-order intentionality.

What brain region's grey matter volume correlates with intentionality inference competences?

The prefrontal cortex.

What are the requisites for empathy?

1. Affective state in self; 2. Isomorphism between self and other's affective states; 3. Self's affective state elicited by another's state; 4. Self-Other distinction.

Is empathy necessary for compassion?

Empathy may be necessary for compassion, but it is debated whether it is sufficient.

What tools are used to measure empathy?

Questionnaires such as the Empathy Quotient and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index.

What does the Empathy Quotient measure?

It assesses an individual's overall empathy levels.

What is the purpose of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index?

It evaluates different dimensions of empathy, including perspective taking and empathic concern.

What is the role of mirror neurons in empathy?

Mirror neurons activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe that action, suggesting a neural basis for empathy.

How is evidence for mirror neurons in humans obtained?

Evidence is mostly indirect, often gathered through fMRI studies.

What is the significance of shared neural representations in empathy?

They suggest that observing others' emotions activates similar neural pathways in the observer.

What is the relationship between perception of touch and brain activity?

Perception of touch increases activity in somatosensory cortices but decreases activity in the insular cortex.

What brain areas show overlap for self and other disgust?

The anterior insula and inferior frontal gyrus.

What happens in reward-processing areas during the observation of unfair pain to others?

There is activation in reward-processing areas.

What is the evidence against the existence of mirror neurons in certain brain areas?

There is no evidence of mirror neurons in the insula or somatosensory cortices in monkeys.

What is the difference between mirroring and simulating in empathy?

Mirroring is a loose analogy for simulating or reproducing the affective experiences of others in our own emotion-related neural systems.

What is zero-order intentionality?

It refers to the tendency to explain behavior without attributing mental states.

What are simulation theories in the context of empathy?

They propose that we understand others' actions and emotions by activating our own neural representations corresponding to those states.

What is the significance of the affective state elicited by another person's affective state in empathy?

It is a key component that allows individuals to connect emotionally with others.

How do empathy paradigms that do not rely on observation function?

They do not activate the mirror neurons network but still engage emotional processing.

What do empathy paradigms that do not rely on observation of movements or body parts fail to activate?

The mirror neurons network.

How should 'mirroring' be understood in the context of empathy?

As a loose analogy for the process of simulating or reproducing the affective experiences of others in our own emotion-related neural systems.

What are deliberate attempts to reason about mental states called?

Reading other people's minds.

What is intentionality in the context of behavior explanation?

The tendency to explain behavior in terms of mental states.

What is zero-order intentionality?

The assumption that an agent possesses no beliefs and desires, responding reflexively to stimuli.

What does first-order intentionality involve?

The inference that an agent possesses beliefs and desires, but not beliefs about beliefs.

What is second-order intentionality?

The inference that an agent possesses beliefs about other people's beliefs.

What is third-order intentionality?

An agent possesses beliefs about other people's beliefs concerning beliefs about other people.

What are some abilities enabled by theory of mind?

Infer what others think, feel, intentions, attribute responsibility, lie, and teach.

What brain region is normally activated in tasks of memory and semantic memory?

Temporal Poles.

What happens to patients with lesions in the temporal poles?

They lose their conceptual knowledge of words, objects, and people.

What is the role of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in social cognition?

It is crucial for thinking about people, their minds, oneself, and inferring feelings and intentions.

What do lesion studies suggest about the mPFC?

It is necessary for Theory of Mind.

What is the function of the temporal-parietal junction (TPJ)?

It is activated in various tasks and is involved in the attribution of mental states to others.

What is egocentricity bias (EEB)?

The tendency to project affective states onto others.

How do individuals with autism typically perform on false belief tasks?

They perform poorly or are incapable of succeeding.

What is suggested to be a core feature of autism regarding theory of mind?

Deficits in Theory of Mind.

What part of the brain is responsible for rational, executive functions?

The prefrontal cortex.

What does the social brain hypothesis explore?

The specialized social cognition skills that evolved to support complex human social behaviors.

What is the most obvious candidate for unique cognitive capacities in social interactions?

Theory of Mind.

What correlation has been found regarding grey matter volume in the prefrontal cortex?

It correlates with intentionality inference competences and mentalizing competences.

What does the evidence suggest about great apes and human adults regarding intentionality?

Only great apes are capable of second-order intentionality, while human adults can achieve fifth-order intentionality.

What are some executive functions associated with the prefrontal cortex?

Planning, organizing thoughts, problem solving, weighing consequences, and controlling emotions.

What is a significant aspect of brain development related to social cognition?

The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature.